动员与控制:国民党执政前后民众政策的转型

国民党改组后,以革命话语整合社会资源,动员民众参与革命并最终取得执政地位。执政后的国民党,一改往日激进的民众动员政策,竭力淡化民众运动的政治色彩,相继出台各种政策加强对民众的控制和监督。国民党执政前后民众政策发生如此变化,一方面是由于作为一个革命政党,其追求的执政目标业已实现,作为革命工具的民众动员已经失去意义;另一方面,作为执政党,稳定政权和控制社会遂成为其执政后首要考虑的问题,故而其民众政策必然要作出相应调整,民众运动被禁止,民众团体受控制。此种变化,改变了国民党改组初期具有广泛群众基础的现代动员型政党的性质,囿于自身阶级基础的局限,变身为权威主义下的既得利益群体控制型政党亦势所必然,在多重因素叠加影响下,国民党对社会的渗透和控制力越大,社会对此"弱势权威政党"的反作用力和离心力就越强,最终导致国民党专制体制下"民众疏离"和"民心流失"结果的出现。     

冷战时期台湾地区报刊舆论的演变

<正>20世纪中国的"战时报刊与舆论动员",除了1949年前战火纷飞岁月的各种情况,还应包含1949年后冷战背景下的特殊情形。1949年10月1日,中国共产党领导建立新政权,12月7日中国国民党政权退守台湾,两党隔海峡而对峙、对抗,并随时准备开战——进行大陆称作"解放台湾"、台湾名为"反攻大陆"的国家统一战争。这种情势也反映到报刊的舆论动员中。大陆地区从"打倒美帝及其走狗蒋匪帮""解放台湾"的宣传鼓动,到"一国两制""和平统一"的呼吁,一直在中共宣传部门直接支配下展开,其脉络比较清晰;而台湾地区则不仅存在官方报刊立场的前后变化,而且至始至终还有民间报刊的不同声音,线索复杂。大体来说,冷战时期台湾地区报刊舆论动员的演变,经过了三个阶段。     

冷战语境下的新“华夷之辨”——美国对华宣传与两岸政权形象的塑造

1950年代,为配合冷战战略,美国宣传部门制定了以"华夷之辨"为核心的对华宣传政策。通过各种宣传媒介,美国把台湾国民党政权塑造为中华文明和传统文化的代表,同时大肆宣传新中国是文化"异端",指责其破坏中国文化。其目的是以此来动员东南亚华侨华人对国民党政权的认同和效忠,使华侨产生对于新中国的厌恶感和疏离感。这种宣传也是为了在世界舆论中为国民党政权赢得支持、诋毁新中国。美国宣传的实质是把民族身份认同问题整合进冷战意识形态,把意识形态之争建构为文化身份的差异。     

从民国邮票看孙中山的“国父”形象

孙中山是著名的革命家,领导了辛亥革命,推翻了封建君主专制制度,建立了中华民国。他为民族独立、国家富强贡献了毕生精力,被全球中国人尊为"国父",是唯一在海峡两岸都受到尊重的革命家。他的形象多次出现在我国邮票上。民国初年,他的形象第一次出现在光复纪念邮票上。但随后中国进入北洋军阀统治时期,官方不承认他的贡献和地位,他的形象一直没有出现在邮票上。但是孙中山的继续奋斗和探索,对社会进步产生了深远影响,赢得了中国人民的爱戴和敬仰,成为人民心中的领袖。1925年孙中山逝世后,被民众自发地尊为"国父"。随着国民党政权统一全国,孙中山的地位得到了官方承认,国民政府为他举行了国葬,发行了相关的邮票。孙中山的"国父"地位随之得到更普遍的认可。抗战期间,他又成为中华民族爱国主义民族精神的象征,并在1940年被正式尊为"国父"。此后,"国父"形象多次出现在各种邮票上。抗战胜利后,孙中山和中山陵的形象升华为国家统一、民族团结的象征。本文从民国时期的邮票入手,通过分析邮票上的孙中山形象,展示了他成为"国父"的过程,及"国父"形象对于民族精神的重要意义,也揭示了国民党政权大量发行孙中山像邮票的政治目的。     

福建前线著名海战纪实——选自《福建省志&#183;军事志》

1958年“八&#183;二三”炮击金门,是地面炮兵在海、空军配合下的联合作战。在第一阶段全面封锁金门作战中,解放军海军鱼雷快艇、护卫艇部队三次出击,三战三捷,击沉、击伤国民党海军舰船各2艘。8月23日傍晚,解放军地面炮兵骤然以雷霆万钧之势,将近3万发炮弹倾泻在金门岛及其港湾附近。国民党军损失惨重,泊于料罗湾的由坦克登陆舰改装的“台生”号货轮也被击伤。为扩大战果,进而全面封锁金门,福建前线部队于24日下午再次组织对金门的大规模炮击,     

金门炮战时国共空中大战追秘

1949年国民党当局败退台湾后,屡屡派遣飞机窜犯大陆,并令其驻金门的部队炮击福建沿海村镇,严重威胁东南沿海重要城镇的安全和社会主义建设.1958年7月中旬,台湾当局又趁美国军队入侵黎巴嫩,镇压中东人民革命之机,一面狂妄叫嚣“加速进行反攻大陆的准备”,一面频频出动飞机,对福建、粤东沿海地区实施航空侦察,并积极筹划攻击大陆的重要军事目标.金门国民党军更是有恃无恐,加紧对福建沿海进行袭扰.中东事变和台湾当局的趁火打劫,引起了毛泽东主席的极大关注,经过周密审慎的思考,一个重大的战略决策在他心中形成.于是,中国现代史上爆发了一场声势浩大的炮击金门战斗.毛泽东决定炮击金门,航空兵部队紧急入闽炮击金门,是从人民解放军航空兵部队紧急入闽开始的.1958年7月18日晚,毛泽东紧急召集中央军委副主席和海、空军领导人等,就惩罚蒋军和支援     

二十世纪三、四十年代国民党基层控制政策的新趋向——兼论中共相关政策对其的影响

早在大革命时期,中共的严密组织以及有效的民众动员力,就给蒋介石等国民党人士留下深刻印象。国共分裂后,中共充分发挥了民众动员的能力,走上了武装割据的道路,作为竞争对手,中共在基层社会成功的动员和组织经验给国民党以极大的刺激,国民党在1930年代后期以及1940年代所采取的诸如严密地方组织,提高国民党党部在地方行政活动中的地位以及在基层民众中发展国民党党员,将国民党势力渗入各种民众团体之中,博取民众对于国民党的同情等新政策,明显受到中共相关政策的触动。国民党对中共相关政策的借鉴程度,与中共的实力发展基本呈正相关状态,但由于国民党工作重心与体制的不同,中共成功经验的精髓并不为国民党所掌握,相关政策多停留在文本上。由于国民党不便于公开宣称向被他们污蔑为"共匪"的竞争对手学习,因此中共相关政策对国民党的影响长期为公众所忽略。     

蒋介石与抗战时期总动员体制之构建

正导言近年来,关于抗战时期中国动员体制之研究成果逐渐增多。方德万(Hans J.van de Ven)指出:"战争动员为我们审视国民党处理中日战争的方式提供了一个视角,这个视角阐明了国民党所面对的各种困难,反映了国民党政权具有的能动性和认知力。"?方德万在其专著中分别以征兵、农业政策、工业动员、国民参政会、国家总动员法等为线索,分析了国民政府的战时动员。②奥村哲通过比较中日两国之兵力装备、经济实力和社会之组织动员情况,指出中日两国在开战时国力相差悬殊。③石岛纪之分析重庆国民政府推行的各项政策,指出其抗战体制存在很多问题。?     

浅析中央苏区的“对外贸易”

为打破国民党政权的经济封锁,中央苏区在党的领导下,动员各方面的力量进行"对外贸易"。其结果与影响是中央苏区的"对外贸易"取得巨大的成绩,在促进苏区的经济建设,支援革命战争,巩固红色政权,改善人民群众生活等方面作出了重大贡献。     

1958年炮击金门与葛罗米柯秘密访华

炮击金门 1958年8月18日,毛泽东在北戴河主持召开中央政治局扩大会议期间,下了立即发起炮击金门的决心,以给国民党反动派一个惩罚性的打击.根据毛泽东的命令,中国人民解放军于8月23日开始炮击金门.大规模的炮击持续了两个多小时,发射炮弹近3万发.台湾国民党当局立即向美国求援.美国急忙把驻在太平洋地区的第七舰队大部分军舰派往台湾地区集中,把支援在黎巴嫩登陆的美军的一部分军舰,从地中海经苏伊士运河调到印度洋.台湾海峡出现一触即发的紧张局势.     

CIVIL WAR,MARRIAGE BAN AND SEX RATIO

The civil war in mainland China during 1945–1949 resulted in an enormous influx of immigrants to Taiwan, the majority of whom were single male soldiers in their twenties or thirties. In addition, a military marriage ban prevented most of the immigrant soldiers from getting married until 1959. These two factors have profound, but distinct, influences on the effective prime-age sex ratio in the marriage market in post-war Taiwan. Unfortunately, the official population data in Taiwan excluded the military and thus did not reveal the true male population until the late 1960s. This paper proposes a method to impute the effective prime-age sex ratio. The imputation result shows that the effective prime-age sex ratio first rose in the 1950s, peaked in the 1960s, and then declined in the 1970s. At its peak, as many as 120 men were competing for only 100 women in the marriage market.     

Drawing (on) women’s military experiences and narratives – Israeli women soldiers’ challenges in the military environment

This article utilizes arts-based methods as a feminist methodology for understanding women’s experiences in military service, according to theories of feminist security studies. It explores how non-combatant women in the army retrospectively narrate stressful situations that happened during their military service. Using arts-based methods, we examine how they derive meaning from their experiences in a masculine, military environment, affected by ongoing conflict. This article analyzes twenty images drawn by Israeli women who served in the army in the previous 2–4 years. The women drew a stressful event from their military service, explained the image, and elaborated on how they coped with the situation. A content analysis of the pictures and the narratives produced three themes: the responsibility for others in life threatening situations, the military as a first professional work experience and the interaction between military and gender hierarchies. In general, women soldiers experienced the army as complex as they encountered their first adult work space in which they learned responsibility and skills of the ‘adults’ world’. However, they were also exposed to a rigid hierarchy and to stressful security situations typical of army contexts. While non-combat women soldiers were allegedly protected from the violence of the army, they are also indirectly exposed to the danger inherent in an army context. This analysis goes beyond the hero narrative, and moves into taboo territories of young women’s narratives and experiences in the military.     

A Most Unmanly War: British Military Masculinity in Macedonia,Mesopotamia and Palestine, 1914–18

This article argues that the most severe crisis of masculinity among British and Dominion soldiers in the First World War did not take place on the Western Front. Instead, British and Dominion soldiers serving on the war's sideshows in Macedonia, Mesopotamia and Palestine believed most acutely that their manliness was in question. Unlike soldiers on the Western Front, they were not battling the main German Army, they were not fighting to liberate occupied France and Belgium, and their war was not to preserve the rights of small nations and the inviolability of international law. This article explores how military masculinity played out much differently on the war's peripheral fronts in two ways. First, it suggests that where a soldier fought mattered more to military masculinity than a soldier's method of enlistment or any other variable. British and Dominion soldiers were fully aware that the home front only considered France and Flanders as the real war, and they actively argued against this misconception to loved ones and in their memoirs. Second, this article demonstrates an additional crisis of masculinity on the war's peripheral fronts: the lack, or more often effacement, of non‐white colonial (Eastern Mediterranean and Arab) women. Not only was British and Dominion military masculinity under assault on the war's peripheral fronts, heteronormative sexual relations were also being transformed in a world where few, if any, racially acceptable women were available.     

论军队在率亥革命中的作用及影响

辛亥革命在中国近代史上具有光彩夺目的一页,军队在其中所扮演的精彩角色,是清代以来所未曾有的。对于军队在辛亥革命中的地位和作用问题,长期以来史学界并没有充分的认识,评价也明显过低。本文认为,军队在辛亥革命中发挥了主力军的作用,革命的主力军不是别的什么群体,而是军人,包括新军、民军、巡防队、警察和学生等,这些问题直接影响到学术界对于辛亥革命性质的探讨;而革命发生后军权势力的扩张又严重影响着近代中国社会的发展,对于这些问题的讨论有利于探清辛亥革命的一些重大问题。     

Homespun manhood and the war against masculinity: community leisure on the US home front, 1917–19

Between the Civil War and World War I, America saw a return to militarised, heroic, warrior forms of masculinity. When the United States entered the war in 1917, however, the demands for belligerent forms of military manhood subsided, and were replaced by a desire to reattach manhood to the domestic realm. In this article, I examine a set of government programmes designed to manage soldiers' leisure time while they were stationed in training camps across the US. I argue that these home front activities betray an anxiety about sending American soldiers to fight in an overseas war for the first time in national history. The US was a young nation state fighting its first international war against other equally statist nations. In this context, it was no longer strategically useful for military manhood to be severed from the idea of home. Rather, as soldiers would be fighting for long periods in an alien territory, it behoved the military and government to temper traditional configurations of warrior manhood, and focus instead on exposing soldiers to as much home and family as they could safely arrange.     

五代巡检研究

巡检作为官称大体始于中晚唐,五代时,已逐渐形成按行政级别分层设置的模式;此外,在盐池产地、交通要道和军队中也大量设置。充任巡检使者的身份地位高低不等,但都由武将充任。五代巡检使所带之兵由几百至几千人不等,甚至有带上万名兵士的;所带兵种有禁军、州兵、乡社兵(民兵)等不同种类。五代巡检作为一种差遣,其设置、任命都体现出政府加强中央集权的意图,这一制度对宋代也产生了深刻影响。     

Maltese ‘gallarija’: a gender and space perspective

In Malta, there are hundreds of balconies, especially in Valletta. However, the most fascinating ones are boxed-balconies known as ‘Gallarijia’ in Maltese. The Knights, an ultra religious Roman Catholic military Order who ruled Malta for over 260 years, adopted covered-balconies designed and used in Muslim countries; in the hope that it would ensure their segregated life style as well as; concealing their illicit sexual activities with Maltese women. The Grand Master de la Cassiere built the first covered-balcony in his palace in Valletta; soon it found affinity with the Maltese well-to-do families who called it their own. Although, cultural and technological transfers between Muslim and Christian worlds have always been a way of life in the Mediterranean region, successfully adopting an innovation from another culture requires suitable social, economic and cultural environment in the host country. The objective of this article is to explain how and why a Christian military order has successfully adopted a Muslim inspired design for their balconies. We suggest the key to understand this phenomenon and the paradox it poses is the status of women in Malta during the Knights' rule.     

St John's Ambulance Brigade and the Gendering of ‘Passive Defence’ in British Malaya, 1937–42

The St John's Ambulance Brigade established itself in British Malaya in the 1930s, as part of efforts to mobilise and train the colony's subjects for civil defence as the geo‐strategic climate in the Pacific deteriorated. This article demonstrates how the provision of emergency medical care was a gendered and racialised undertaking in the colonial context. Unlike the military, comprising mainly European and ‘trusted’ ethnic Indian soldiers, the realm of ‘passive defence’ was identified as a feminised undertaking for women and ethnic Chinese men who were considered to be either too vulnerable or too disloyal to bear arms. The rapid advance of Japan's military in south‐east Asia violently shattered such social boundaries, as many women and non‐European volunteers found themselves exposed by retreating Allied forces to the Japanese offensive and took up duties at posts from which their European supervisors had been forced to desert. Mainstream military historiography has often been highly gendered towards what is considered as the male‐dominated public domain of the battlefield. In this respect, the involvement of the St John's Ambulance Brigade reveals the process in which colonial ethno‐gender identities and hierarchies were being established, appropriated and subsequently subverted by the exigencies of the war in British Malaya.     

A new military history of the Italian Risorgimento and Anti-Risorgimento: the case of ‘transnational soldiers’

The article discusses new studies of foreign soldiers in the Italian armed groups of the (Anti-)Risorgimento against the background of recent scholarship on ‘transnational soldiers’, which acknowledges the complexities of foreigners' initial motives for enlistment and of the transnational processes inside the single armies. The article suggests that from the mundane structures of military life to the perceptions of the rank-and-file, many aspects of the soldiering experience in the multinational armed groups on all sides of the Risorgimento actually advanced rather than obviated national boundaries. This paper further demonstrates that the military cultures of the nationalists and the anti-unity forces were much more porous and mutually constitutive than is often recognised. The histories of the ‘transnational soldiers’ in the armed groups of the Risorgimento and Anti-Risorgimento are crucial for a possibly new, comparative history of the armed groups of the (Anti-)Risorigmento. This paper explores approaches of the culturally revived ‘new military history’ and suggests that it provides much still unrealised potential for Risorgimento historiography.     

民族整合与文化认同:努尔哈赤汉人“恩养”政策

努尔哈赤在起兵统一东北地区的过程中,对汉人实行"拒敌者杀之,不与敌者勿妄杀"的政策:即对据城不降的汉人实行野蛮、残忍的屠杀政策;对归降的汉人实行"恩养"政策,并以严法打击女真人侵犯汉人生命、财物和妇女贞洁等事件。在"恩养"的同时,汉人也被吸纳到后金的政权建设之中,承担起地方治理、教习"军令法纪"和传播中原文化的责任,随之而来的则是中原文化中"孝悌"之道、为政以德和惩恶扬善对努尔哈赤等女真人的影响。而随着女真人对中原文化认同的加深,民族之间的整合也在曲折中前进。