Presence of the genus Cuon in upper Pleistocene and initial Holocene sites of the Iberian Peninsula: new remains identified in archaeological contexts of the Mediterranean region

The dhole (Cuon alpinus) has been documented on the Iberian Peninsula throughout the Middle and Upper Pleistocene in archaeological and palaeontological contexts. However, this is an uncommon species among the Iberian quaternary faunae as a whole. This paper focuses on the remains of the genus Cuon recovered in three different sites of the Iberian Mediterranean region and their morphological and osteometrical study. By comparing these with fourteen complete skeletons of Canis lupus, as well as with other remains of C. alpinus, we intend to highlight some anatomical and metrical differences between Cuon and Canis that, added to those already published, could be a functional base-line for the identification of this genus. The identification of this species is complex, especially in archaeological contexts, and in some cases the dhole has been identified as Canis or Canidae. Furthermore, this paper explores the chronology of the presence of the dhole in the Iberian Peninsula and the different contexts where these animals have been recovered from.     

The Quaternary fossil record of the genus Testudo in the Iberian Peninsula. Archaeological implications and diachronic distribution in the western Mediterranean

This paper explores the presence of tortoise remains and its meaning in Palaeolithic archaeological contexts. We focus on two topics: (1) the presence or absence of the genus Testudo from the Early Pleistocene to the Holocene in SW Europe; and (2) the relationship between Testudo and the palaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental conditions diachronically. In order to address this objective, we collected published and unpublished data from different sites on the eastern Iberian Peninsula. The results obtained by this study demonstrate that Testudo hermanni was the only tortoise present in this area until recent times and its presence in archaeological sites is almost always related to anthropic activities. Finally, the disappearance of Testudo from archaeological sites in some areas is related to climatic changes and events that occurred during the last stages of the Pleistocene.     

Exotic plants from Roman waterlogged sites in London

An extensive range of plant remains was recovered from seven Roman sites in London where waterlogged conditions had resulted in good preservation. In the majority of cases the “artificial” nature of urban deposits precludes any objective ecological interpretation, since the allochthonous origin of the plant remains cannot be satisfactorily established. However, the presence of exotic plants in dated deposits is of both botanical and archaeological significance and is here artificially treated as an autonomous group. This varied group of plants (excluding carbonized cereals) is arranged according to their use and put in archaeological and botanical perspective. Species such as cucumber (Cucumis sativa), gold of pleasure (Camelina sativa), peach (Prunus persica), olive (Olea europaea) and millet (Panicum miliaceum) have not been recorded from Romano-British sites before. For many of these plants their status, either as introductions or imports, is uncertain. Whichever is the case, it is clear that a wide variety of economic plants was available in Roman London.     

Southwest Scottish Crannogs: using in situ studies to assess preservation in wetland archaeological contexts

This paper presents the results of in situ monitoring of waterlogged burial contexts in southwest Scotland. The sites investigated are Iron Age crannogs (lake dwellings) which have a proven waterlogged archaeological component, and which are being assessed as part of a national program of study by the Scottish Wetland Archaeology Programme (SWAP) team. A monthly monitoring program commenced in July of 2004. To date, monitoring of water levels, pH, and redox potential, has been undertaken for a period of 17 months in order to encompass any seasonal variability at the sites studied. The results have proven robust in that an ‘ideal’ site for in situ preservation has been identified from the five sites investigated, and the monitoring has highlighted external variables and seasonal impacts that have the potential to influence the long-term in situ preservation at the remaining sites studied. In general, these results have expanded upon our knowledge of the potential for the preservation of existing archaeological remains within such contexts. This study represents the first stage of monitoring aimed at developing a holistic understanding of in situ conditions at the crannog sites studied in southwest Scotland.     

Morphometric and taphonomic analysis of granular ark (Anadara granosa) dominated shell deposits of Blue Mud Bay,northern Australia

Metrical analyses of complete mollusc shells have commonly been used to examine aspects of prehistoric mollusc demography, and by extension to investigate potential human exploitation of a variety of species. Recently it has been highlighted that several taphonomic processes, such as fragmentation, have the potential to introduce size bias into these archaeological samples, particularly towards smaller size classes, and thus the potential to significantly skew results of these metrical analyses. This is investigated here by deriving morphometric equations for the sand/mudflat bivalve Anadara granosa, a species prevalent in archaeological sites across northern Australia. A linear regression model based on a series of valve measurements, resulting in high coefficients of determination, demonstrates strong predictive power for size reconstruction. The effects of fragmentation on assemblages from two case study sites are then examined as a means of reviewing issues of differential size preservation, variation in mean valve size, and evaluating the strength of previous interpretations of intensive human exploitation in Blue Mud Bay. Based on these analyses it appears that A. granosa mean size is not significantly affected by fragmentation as other species described in the literature, and previous interpretations retain their validity.     

Seasonality and paleodiet in the Chiribaya polity of southern Peru

In the Andes, the complex Chiribaya polity, or señorío, was composed of economically specialized groups. Previous carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses of archaeological human bone from Chiribaya-affiliated sites have effectively demonstrated socioeconomic specialization and variability in paleodiet among different Chiribaya-affiliated sites. The present study complements earlier paleodietary analyses of Chiribaya populations by supplementing them with carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses of archaeological human hair from the two Chiribaya-affiliated sites of Chiribaya Alta and El Yaral. These new data demonstrate that seasonal variability in the consumption of marine products and C₄ plants such as maize was quite high for some individuals buried at Chiribaya-affiliated sites. In addition to elucidating the complex patterns of Chiribaya seasonality, this study contributes to the growing body of knowledge of archaeological analyses of human hair for paleodiet.     

Critical reassessment of putative Acheulean Porosphaera globularis beads

Excavations at Acheulean sites in northern Europe at the end of the 19th century have yielded fossil sponges belonging to the Late Cretaceous species Porosphaera globularis. The spherical morphology of these fossils, their small size, and the presence of a natural complete perforation in their center have led some archaeologists to interpret them as the oldest known beads. Others argue that the presence of these fossils at archaeological sites is due to natural processes. Re-examination of material collected during the 19th century has recently revived the bead interpretation. We tested the bead hypothesis by analyzing 13 samples of Porosphaera from nine sites in Britain and France. We conducted morphometric and microscopic analyses on specimens recovered from archaeological sites (n = 349), a natural geological sample, which was collected directly from Cretaceous strata (n = 352), and a sample from a Bronze Age burial (n = 43). Reappraisal of contextual data shows that the association of these finds with Acheulean artifacts is uncertain. Our results show that archaeological specimens are significantly different in size and perforation pattern from those of the natural geological sample. This may be due to size-sorting caused by sedimentary processes, size-selection by Palaeolithic people or by 19th century collectors. Modifications of the fossils' natural shape were detected on a few specimens in the form of localized abrasions and microchipping along the hole margins. A single specimen displays a facet close to the hole produced by grinding. The surfaces of these features exhibit a hue lighter than that observed on the remainder of the specimens indicating that they may be recent in origin and due to post-excavation and preservation treatment. However, this seems contradicted, for some specimens from Bedford, by the fact that according to Smith, W.G. [1884. On a Palaeolithic floor at North-East London. Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 13, 357–384] the specimens bearing microchipping and abrasions were found by him and “not touched or manipulated by the workmen”. We conclude that new excavations of these sites, involving systematic screening of sediments, are needed in order to attempt to solve the Porosphaera “mystery”.     

Provenance analysis of Olivella biplicata shell beads from the California and Oregon Coast by stable isotope fingerprinting

While Olivella beads are a common component of archaeological sites in California, and were widely traded in prehistory, no method has been developed to trace individual beads to a point of origin. This study examines the potential of stable carbon and oxygen isotopes to source Olivella beads from the Pacific coast. The study shows that 1) the oxygen isotopic composition of modern Olivella biplicata shells faithfully varies with ambient sea surface temperature and local upwelling, lending themselves to sourcing studies; 2) oxygen isotope ratios in modern shells can be used to identify shells that grow north versus south of Point Conception, California; and 3) shell carbon isotope ratios may further subdivide these two regions into more spatially restricted source zones. Analyses on a small sample of 10 beads found at various archaeological sites within the interior of California suggest that all were made in southern California.     

Paleoethology as a tool for the development of archaeological models of land-use: the Crimean Middle Palaeolithic

The principal aim of our research is to capitalize on the close relationship between prehistoric hunters and prey to develop spatial models for the investigation of land-use patterns. Ideally, these models should be useful both as predictive tools for designing regional archaeological surveys, and as analytical tools for studying the distribution of known archaeological sites. Here, we build upon a basic G.I.S. model (including standard environmental variables such as slope, aspect and distance to water) adding a paleoethological variable in the form of range reconstructions for the regionally dominant, prehistoric human prey species: Equus hydruntinus.     

Raptor pellets as zooarchaeological material for paleoparasitological studies in Patagonia

Raptor pellets from Cerro Casa de Piedra archaeological sites, Patagonia, have yielded consistent evidence of parasitism and possible zoonoses in ancient times. Pellet samples analyzed were dated at 2740 ± 100 and 3.990 ± 80 years before present and have produced evidence of three intestinal parasite genera. Eggs of two nematodes Trichuris and Calodium, and one cestode, taeniid, were found. Its significance for rock shelters paleoepidemiology of the Holocene is discussed. This study increases the evidences that raptor pellets can be used as source of paleoparasitological information in archaeological sites.     

Autochthony and orientation patterns in Olduvai Bed I: a re-examination of the status of post-depositional biasing of archaeological assemblages from FLK North (FLKN)

Recent excavations at FLK North (Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania) have produced new information on the orientation of archaeological materials at various levels of the site. This information includes the uniform distribution of material azimuths, which contrasts with previous inferences of highly patterned orientations of materials in the Bed I archaeological sites. Those previous inferences of patterned material orientations are based on Mary Leakey's 50-year-old drawings of artifact and fossil bone distribution, but are not verified by our precise measurements of archaeological objects made in situ. Nor do those previous results agree with the general lack of geological, geomorphological, and/or taphonomic data that would indicate significant post-depositional movement of archaeological materials in the sites. We argue here that Leakey's drawings are incomplete (only portions of each assemblage were drawn) and inaccurate in their representation of the original locations, shapes and orientations of most archaeological specimens. This argument is supported by several important mismatches in object representations between a photograph taken of a small portion of the FLK 22 Zinjanthropus site floor before the removal of the archaeological items, and the sketch of the same area drawn by Leakey. Thus, we conclude that primary orientation data of excavations (i.e., direct measurements taken from items) generated prior to object removal are the only valid indicators of the relative isotropy or anisotropy of these important paleoanthropological assemblages.     

Calcium–iron–phosphate features in archaeological sediments: characterization through microfocus synchrotron X-ray scattering analyses

The occurrence of amorphous calcium (Ca)–iron (Fe)–phosphate infilling features in thin-section samples from archaeological stratigraphies is increasingly being reported and used in the cultural interpretations of sites. In some contexts, these materials are the product of dissolution and recrystallization of bone material within pores of the soil or sediment matrix. This study uses transmitted microfocus X-ray scattering to characterize and measure features of known cod fish bone (Gadus morhua) materials, and compare them to archaeological samples of amorphous Ca-Fe-phosphate infilling material found in thin section from early fishing community sites. The analyses characterize the structure of these features for the first time, and allow discussion of the diagenetic processes that lead to their formation.     

Inter-site variability in the season of shellfish collection on the central coast of British Columbia

High-resolution stable oxygen isotope analysis of the bivalve Saxidomus gigantea from shell midden sites was applied to identify seasonal patterns of resource procurement on the central coast of British Columbia, Canada. A total of 90 archaeological shells were examined from eight distinct sites spanning a 4500-year period. Combining micro-growth pattern analysis with high-resolution stable oxygen isotope sampling allows for a precise season of collection to be determined in estuarine bivalves recovered from archaeological sites. The results of the stable oxygen isotope analysis provide insights into seasonally structured harvest of S. gigantea (butter clam), which is associated with different types of sites. The results show a variety of patterns, including multi-seasonal collection, intensive seasonal harvesting and casual, supplemental use of butter clams at different locations.     

Stable hydrogen isotopes of bone collagen in palaeodietary and palaeoenvironmental reconstruction

The stable hydrogen isotope ratios (δD) of bone collagen in archaeological human and animal samples demonstrate a trophic level effect, with increasing δD from herbivores to omnivores to humans, in steps of 10–30‰. In addition the archaeological sites studied (Yarnton, Eton Rowing Lake, Danebury Environs–Suddern Farm, and Windmill Hill in the UK, Balatonszárszó in Hungary, and Huari in Peru) demonstrate geographical variation in δD. The detection of manuring in prehistory by comparison of δ¹⁵N to δD values in humans and a local herbivore (cattle) is also considered. This work is the first to measure δD in a large number and range of archaeological samples, with several animal species and humans. It demonstrates unequivocally that δD is different between species in ancient material, increasing from herbivores to omnivores to carnivores.     

Morphological distinctions between the mandibular teeth of young sheep, Ovis, and goats, Capra

Morphological distinctions between the mandibular teeth of young sheep (Ovis) and goats (Capra) are described, and their value in the study of bone samples from archaeological sites is briefly discussed.     

Canidae volume bone mineral density values: an application to sites in western Canada

We present volume bone mineral density values from five different canid species: domestic dog (Canis familiaris), wolf (Canis lupus), coyote (Canis latrans), red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and swift fox (Vulpes velox). We use these density values to investigate Canidae remains from four archaeological sites in western Canada and show the importance of explicitly stating assumptions made about the original composition of the deposited faunal assemblage as this influences whether correlations are found between density and percent survivorship (%MAU).     

Amplification and sequencing of Trichuris trichiura ancient DNA extracted from archaeological sediments

Despite high prevalence of Trichuris trichiura infection, PCR-based analysis on T. trichiura from archaeological samples has not been established so far. In the present study, we sought to perform PCR-based amplification of T. trichiura aDNA using the sediments from medieval tomb of Korea. The presence of Trichuris eggs were first detected by microscopic observation; then confirmed by PCR-based aDNA analysis. Obtained sequence showed 100% homology to that of the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSUrRNA) gene of T. trichiura but distinct from that of other Trichuris species. PCR-based aDNA analysis in this study can serve as effective method to confirm the presence of T. trichiura eggs in the soils or coprolites collected from archaeological sites.     

Mineral weathering in forest soils and its relevance to the preservation of the buried archaeological resource

There is more woodland in Britain now than for many centuries and considering many international climate change mitigation policies, woodland cover, both in Britain and internationally, is being promoted. However, neither the management of existing woodlands nor their expansion should be at the expense of important archaeological evidence. Due to the large number of known archaeological sites, the large areas of land with uninvestigated archaeological potential and the expanding woodland cover, suitable mitigation strategies need to be developed to allow preservation in situ of important sites. An understanding of how woodland soils and the buried archaeological resource interact is, therefore, essential. This paper utilises ongoing environmental research into the mineral weathering rates in forest soils and considers its application to artefact preservation. The study concludes that soil water pH, its movement, and the saturation of dissolved ions in the soil solution are major factors determining both mineral and artefact longevity. A simple guide to artefact longevity based on these properties is proposed and a geochemical model for predicting loss is tested. These tools could be applied to any soil or individual horizon irrespective of land-use.     

Defining an indicator package to allow identification of ‘cesspits’ in the archaeological record

This paper summarises the insect, plant macrofossil and other environmental evidence from a large number of deposits, thought to be cesspits, at a range of archaeological sites. A potential ‘indicator package’ (sensu Kenward and Hall, 1997), consisting of a range of biological materials and archaeological artefacts, is outlined which should allow a more accurate identification of cesspits in the archaeological record enhancing further studies of the rich evidence often preserved in them.     

Designing protective structures at archaeological sites Criteria and environtnental design tnethodology for a proposed structure at Lot's Basilica,Jordan

Abstract

This paper sheds light on the need to assess the efficacy and performance of protective structures at archaeological sites according to design criteria derived from various elements in heritage management processes. The paper also focuses on the use of architectural design methodologies that essentially correspond to physical conservation requirements at archaeological sites. The paper, in effect, introduces climatic approaches to the design of protective structures at archaeological sites. It further illustrates the value of computer-based environmental simulation and modeling tools in the design phase of projects. Despite their limitations, these tools help guide design processes, and generally indicate future conservation effectiveness and performance of protective enclosed structures at archaeological sites.