'Mark one or more': Counting and projecting by race on US Census 2000 and beyond

In 1997, the US Government revised its standards for the collection of data on race. Previous US government practice dating back to the first US Census in 1790 forced people into mutually exclusive categories. The new policy allows people to identify themselves as being of more than one race. The 2000 Census is the first major national data collection exercise to use this new system and its results will reveal both the promise and the perils of the new system. On the positive side, the new scheme allows people who think of themselves as 'mixed' to be counted as such in official data. However, multiple race responses complicate efforts to count minority populations eligible for civil protection and voting rights laws. Furthermore, the new systems pose new opportunities and challenges for social scientists concerned with the measurement of ethnic and racial inequality. The paper ends with a discussion of the implications of the new rules for the imagination of America's ethno-racial future through population projections.     

Patterns of Temporary Mobility in Australia: Evidence from the 1991 Census

While Census data are generally employed to examine permanent migration, they also provide a unique window on temporary population movements, a phenomenon largely neglected in Australia. Building on the work of Zelinsky, this paper outlines a conceptual framework for analysis of temporary mobility and reviews the strengths and limitations of the Census as a source of information. Data from the 1991 Australian Census are then used to analyse the incidence of temporary movements, the characteristics of temporary movers, and their spatial distribution. It is shown that temporary mobility is selective of certain groups and that there are substantial concentrations of temporary movers in both coastal and inland locations. By combining analysis of their origins with the attributes of their destinations, a preliminary typology of temporary population movement is proposed. The concluding section considers the implications of this form of mobility and identifies some avenues for further research.     

Frozen Film and FOSDIC Forms: Restoring the 1960 U.S. Census of Population and Housing

In this article, the authors describe a collaboration of the Minnesota Population Center (MPC), the U.S. Census Bureau, and the National Archives and Records Administration to restore the lost data from the 1960 Census. The data survived on refrigerated microfilm in a cave in Lenexa, Kansas. The MPC is now converting the data to usable form. Once the restored data are processed, the authors intend to develop three new data sources based on the 1960 census. These data will replace the most inadequate sample in the series of public-use census microdata spanning the years from 1850 to 2000, extend the chronological scope of the public census summary files, and provide a powerful new resource for the Census Bureau and its Research Data Centers.     

The social selectivity of migration flows affecting Britain's larger conurbations: An analysis of the 1991 census regional migration tables

Little is known about the social composition of migration affecting British cities, despite the currently high political salience of this issue. This is principally because of the very limited availability of reliable city‐scale data on such migrant characteristics as occupation and income. This paper uses the Regional Migration Tables from the 1991 Census to document the migration of labour force members to and from Britain's larger conurbations, distinguishing six main Social Groups defined on the basis of occupation. It is found that all eight areas were net losers of economically active people, that all six Social Groups were generally contributing to these net losses and that, in every case except London, there was a strong positive relationship between social status and the rate of net out‐migration to the rest of Britain. This latter case suggests the need for further work, which would benefit from the more detailed migration datasets that are promised from the 2001 Census.     

USING THE GETIS STATISTIC TO EXPLORE AGGREGATION EFFECTS IN METROPOLITAN TORONTO CENSUS DATA

In an earlier paper by the same authors (Amrhein and Reynolds 1996), the variation of the G statistic (Getis 1991; Getis and Ord 1992) was demonstrated to correlate very highly with calculated aggregation effects. In the conclusions to this earlier paper, we called for experiments with different data sets, different aggregation rules, and different definitions of the connectivity matrix. In this paper, we explore the behaviour of census data from enumeration areas of the Toronto Census Metropolitan Area. Experiments are conducted that describe the aggregation effects that creep into the data at different scales, and the effect of the aggregation algorithm on the results. Finally, we test the ability of a modified G statistic, our Getis statistic, to predict aggregation effects     

Changing Ethnic Segregation and Housing Disadvantage in Dundee

Abstract

Dundee has a small black and minority ethnic (BME) population, which has been neglected by previous research, as have BME populations in small towns and cities generally. As in other British cities, the residential locations of the main BME groups are distinct from that of the white population. After briefly reviewing the history of settlement in Dundee, this paper examines the extent to which patterns of ethnic segregation have changed between 1991 and 2001. Some moves towards dispersal and suburbanisation are identified but there are important contrasts between different BME groups. The implications of segregation for housing availability are assessed through Census of Population data. The hypothesis is posed that the consequences of segregation for housing disadvantage are greater in small cities such as Dundee.     

Identifying Functional Regions in Australia Using Hierarchical Aggregation Techniques

This paper continues our work focused on developing a new socio-economic geography for Australia such that the chosen spatial aggregation of data is based on an analysis of economic behaviour. The underlying hypothesis is that the development of a geographical classification based on underlying economic behaviour will provide new insights into critical issues of regional performance, including unemployment differentials, the impact of industry, infrastructure and changes in local public expenditure on local labour markets. As a precursor to detailed work on the 2006 Census of Population and Housing data, we establish the proof of concept in this paper of the Intramax methodology using 2001 Journey-to-Work data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) for the state of New South Wales. The functional regionalisation generated by the Intramax method is then tested using ABS labour force data. We compare 2001 ABS Census of Population and Housing data aggregated by the ABS labour force regions to the same data aggregated using our functional regions. The results demonstrate the potential value of this technique for the development of a new geography.     

Aggregation and Ecological Effects in Geographically Based Data

Statistics calculated using the means of geographic areas can differ substantially from the corresponding statistics based on data from individuals. Analysts who base their conclusions about individual-level relationships on area-level analyses run the risk of committing the ecological fallacy. Statistical models are proposed that capture the essential features of the structure of a population composed of geographically defined groups and can encompass grouping processes and contextual effects. These models are used to show how small effects in the analysis of individual-level data can be magnified substantially when the corresponding analysis based on aggregated data is carried out. Thus the source of aggregation effects is exposed. While aggregation effects have been studied by many authors, no general approach has been offered to the problem of adjusting an area-level analysis so as to correct for aggregation effects and hence remove, or at least reduce, the bias that leads to the ecological fallacy. The statistical models proposed are used to provide an approach to this problem. Data from the 1991 U.K. Census of Housing and Population are used to illustrate the size of the aggregation effects and the extent to which the proposed adjustments succeed in their objective.     

EPICENTRES OF MISSING DAUGHTERS

The spatial spread of the female child deficit in India has been explored in terms of hot spots (with high deficits) and cold spots (with more female-favourable child sex ratios). It has been argued, using the Census of India data from individual censuses, that there is a contagion effect for both hot spots and cold spots. This paper takes this discussion forward by asking whether such an effect can be seen across censuses. To do so, it develops the concept of an epicentre to see whether a hot or cold spot in one census spreads shock waves across a wider region in later censuses. The longitudinal analysis of child sex ratios over three censuses—1991, 2001 and 2011—shows that the hot spots are epicentres for the spread of female child deficits, while the cold spots display a reverse effect.     

U.S. Census Bureau Area Measurements for Sub-County Areas and Clarence Batschelet’s U.S. Population Density Map of 1942

ABSTRACT

During the Second World War, the U.S. Bureau of the Census published a novel population density map for the U.S. that used minor civil divisions as its areal basis. Prior to that time, the national-level area measurements required to calculate densities for such sub-county units were unavailable. The data that enabled the production of the map published in 1942 were collected by clerical workers who were employed as part of a joint project between the Census Bureau and the Works Progress Administration. The area measurements, made using planimeters, were used with 1940 Census of Population data to compute densities that are represented on the map using a choropleth technique.     

Linking the 1940 U.S. Census with modern data

Abstract

The U.S. Census Bureau has created a set of linkable census, survey, and administrative records that provides longitudinal data on the American population across the past eight decades. While these files include modern decennial censuses, Census Bureau surveys, and administrative records files from other federal agencies, the long time span is only possible with the addition of the complete count 1940 Census microdata. In this paper, we discuss the development of this linked data infrastructure and provide an overview of the record linkage techniques used. We primarily focus on the techniques used to produce a beta version of a linkable 1940 Census microdata file and discuss the potential to further document and extend the infrastructure.     

Lost in the Mail: the Inherent Errors of Mapping Australia Post Postcodes to ABS Derived Postal Areas

It is now common practice, by users of geographic information, to link data held at the postcode level to that obtained from the national census. This paper examines the relationship between Australia Post (AP) postcodes and Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) derived postal areas — which are an approximation of the former based on aggregated census collection districts (CDs). A group of adjacent ABS postal areas in northwest Melbourne was compared with the true AP postcode areas they purported to represent and the discrepancies were investigated. Firstly, shape mismatches were studied and their potential impacts upon resource allocation decisions were assessed. Next, comparisons of areas were undertaken. It was found that, in established inner city urban areas, the two sets of boundaries were highly correlated. However, outer suburban neighborhoods were identified as being particularly prone to major areal discrepancies. The implications of mismatches between these two key boundary data sources may be severe, given that management decisions and the allocation of public and private resources are often based on spatial statistical analyses which use these data sets. The authors acknowledge ABS efforts in providing information at the levels of aggregation that society demands. The introduction of ABS postal areas data has undoubtedly facilitated the use of demographic data in many sectors; it has, however, also caused some problems, for instance, when users assume that ABS postal areas are identical to AP postcodes. These issues could easily be avoided with the inclusion of more comprehensive metadata documentation accompanying ABS data. Research is continuing to develop a method by which agencies may derive common boundaries for their administrative units, yet still meet their own individual data and sampling requirements.     

Towards the Geographies of the 2001 UK Census of Population

A single geographical base has traditionally been created for each census of population in the United Kingdom, aimed primarily at organizing the enumeration task. The subsequent use of this enumeration geography for diverse purposes has been problematic but unavoidable. This paper examines how new digital spatial data and GIS technology are making possible the creation of separate geographies of the 2001 Census for data collection, validation, output, specification and use. The paper explores the implications of these changes for the development of a national spatial data infrastructure and for geographical research involving the census more generally.     

Towards the construction of place-specific measures of deprivation: a case study from the Vancouver metropolitan area

There have been numerous attempts to measure population health outcomes using socio-economic indicators. Few investigations have utilized a survey-based approach. This article develops a new means for identifying key socio-economic indicators of relative health outcomes within greater Vancouver, British Columbia (BC). The index, referred to as the Vancouver Area Neighbourhood Deprivation Index (VANDIX), was constructed from a survey of provincial Medical Health Officers (MHOs). The MHOs were asked to rank socio-economic indicators selected from the 2001 National Census by their relative influence on health outcomes throughout the province. Response consistency was evaluated with a weighted Kappa test statistic. The VANDIX score was assigned to Census Dissemination Areas and Census Tract administrative geographies. The scores were then compared to a subset of the 2003 Canadian Community Health Survey (CCHS) Cycle 2.1 database on self-assessed health. Outcome scores between the     

THE GREYING OF SOUTH GEORGIAN BAY

Custom Statistics Canada tabulations were used to analyse the distribution of the elderly, rural nonfarmers and migrants in Census Subdivisions around the south shore of Georgian Bay in 1991. The proportion of persons 60 and over in this area is well above the provincial average. In manycsDs, over 90 percent of those 60 and over are in the rural nonfarm category. Townships on the Bruce Peninsula were particularly attractive to elderly nonfarm migrants, while Wasaga Beach was an important destination for the elderly. Forallareas, the Colden Horseshoe around the western end of Lake Ontario was the largest source of elderly migrants from 1986 to 1991.
Des totalisations spéciales de Statistiques Canada ont été utilisées pour analyser la distribution des migrants, des personnes âgées, et des non-fermiers vivant sur les bords de la Baie Georgienne en 1991. La proportion de gens âgés de 60 ans et plus est bien au dessus de la moyenne provinciale. Dans plusieurs subdivisions de recensement, plus de 90% de gens aCgés de 60 ans et plus appartiennent à la catégorie rurale non agricole. Les cantons de la Péninsule de Bruce ont particulièrement attiré les migrants âgés de secteurs non agricoles. d'autre part Wasaga Beach était une destination importante pour les personnes âgées. La région du 'Golden Horseshoe', a l'extrémité ouest du Lac Ontario, a été celle qui a fourni le plus de migrants âgés de 1986 à 1991.     

BAYESIAN SMOOTHING OF RATES IN SMALL GEOGRAPHIC AREAS*

ABSTRACT. An enormous amount of socio-economic and public-health data come as rates (e.g., unemployment, per capita income, mortality rates, census undercount) reported in small geographic areas. The U.S. Census Bureau regularly publishes data series at the county level, although the county is often a small area chosen for administrative convenience rather than by design. The reported rates can be regarded as a noisy representation of the true geographic distribution of rates over the small areas. This article presents a Bayesian statistical method of smoothing raw rates. In order to illustrate the important features of the method, a data set on undercoverage in the 1980 U.S. Census will be used.     

A Man of Property: Richard Sykes,Merchant and Alderman of Leeds

Abstract

The publication of many of the original returns of the 1851 Census of Religious Worship opens up new potentialities for research, especially when these are studied alongside other sources that illuminate variegated local patterns of religious activity. In 1851, in Yorkshire nearly two thirds of places of worship had been built or opened in the preceding half century, producing a religious climate that was highly competitive and pluralistic. The Census reveals the decline of Quakerism, the rapid growth of Roman Catholicism, and the partial recovery of the Church of England. Methodism was already entrenched almost everywhere in Yorkshire — in rural as well as urban areas — although the Wesleyan schism of 1850 led to significant short-term disruption in some districts. Case studies of the subdistricts of Huddersfield, Grassington and Easingwold illustrate the highly varied nature of local developments, contingent on factors of geography and personality. It is argued that the Census provides evidence of rechristianization, quite as much as secularization, and that long-term decline in English religious practice should neither be predated nor perceived as inevitable.     

从"正常化"走向"睦邻友好"--1989～1992年中苏(俄)关系简析

1989～1992年是中苏(俄)关系史上一个重要的时期,它包括三个阶段:中苏关系实现正常化(1989年);中苏关系过渡到中俄关系(1991年);建立睦邻友好原则(1992年).在这三个阶段中,"正常化"是核心,它贯穿其间,使三个阶段紧密相连.中苏关系之所以实现"正常化"主要是由国际形势的变化和两国的国家利益所决定的.此外,灵活的政策运用在处理"三大障碍"问题上发挥了重要的作用,为中苏关系正常化的最终实现创造了不可或缺的条件.中苏关系正常化,对后来的中苏(俄)关系产生了深远的影响,其中最重要的就是确立了新型的国家关系,使两国关系经受住了国际形势风云变幻的考验,奠定了两国关系稳定发展的基础.