CREATIVE INDUSTRIES IN THE NETHERLANDS: STRUCTURE, DEVELOPMENT, INNOVATIVENESS AND EFFECTS ON URBAN GROWTH

Creativity is central in stimulating economic growth in cities, regions and advanced capitalist economies in general. There is, of course, no one-to-one relation of the number of firms in creative industries to economic growth. Innovation is a key mechanism explaining the relationship of creative industries with economic performance. Based on an empirical study in the Netherlands we explore the effect of creative industries on innovation, and ultimately on employment growth in cities. In the Netherlands the three specific domains of creative industries - arts, media and publishing, and creative business services - make up 9 per cent of the business population. Drawing on survey data we find that firms in creative industries are indeed relatively innovative. Yet substantial differences are found across the three domains: firms in the arts domain are clearly less innovative, most likely due to a different (less market-oriented) dominant ideology. In addition, firms in creative industries located in urban areas are more innovative than their rural counterparts. We go on to analyse how the concentration of creative industries across cities is connected with employment growth. With the exception of the metropolitan city of Amsterdam, we find no measurable spill-over effect from creative industries. The presence of the creative class (in all kinds of industries other than creative ones) appears to be a much stronger driver of employment growth than creative industries.     

文化与创意产业集群的研究谱系和前沿:走向文化生态隐喻?

文章基于文献研究,梳理文化和创意产业集群的研究谱系,指出该领域学术界:①没有将文化和创意产业本体论知识整合到集群分析框架;②对艺术家和创意阶层及其项目生产方式、知识流的空间过程关注十分薄弱;③忽视文化消费和中介因素对创意集群和文化生产的反身性;④比较偏向生产型创意集群的研究、忽视空间型创意集群和消费型文化产业园区和城市空间的研究;⑤在研究方法上相对单一。作者提出通过运用文化生态系统隐喻,进一步展开综合研究的可能性。     

THE "CREATIVE CLASS" IN THE UK: AN INITIAL ANALYSIS

Richard Florida argues that regional economic outcomes are tied to the underlying conditions that facilitate creativity and diversity. Thus the Creative Class thesis suggests that the ability to attract creativity and to be open to diverse groups of people of different ethnic, racial and lifestyle groups provides distinct advantages to regions in generating innovations, growing and attracting high‐technology industries, and spurring economic growth. In this paper we investigate the extent to which there might be similar processes concerning the relationship between creativity, human capital, and high‐technology industries at work in the UK as in North America. The approach taken is broadly sympathetic to the Creative Class thesis; critical perspectives and reservations from the literature are introduced as appropriate research is focused around the three principal research questions: Where is the creative class located in the UK? What is the impact of quality of place upon this dispersion? What is the connection between the location of the creative class and inequalities in technical and economic outcomes within the UK? To this end, the creative class and its subgroups are defined and identified. We then construct quality of place indicators relating to tolerance, diversity, creativity and cultural opportunity. To these are added measures of public provision and social cohesion. Data are analysed by means of correlations and regression. In general we find that, although the distribution of the creative class is uneven and complex, our results are consistent with the findings of the North American research with the notable exception of technology‐based employment growth. Finally, priorities for further research are discussed. The need to further investigate causality, variations within the creative class itself, and the potential role of qualitative data in this are highlighted, as is the potential fate of “non‐creative” workers and places.     

创造阶层与城市可持续发展

随着知识经济的发展和经济全球化,人才资源(人力资本)成为第一资源,以人为本,重视人力资本特别是创造型人才并发挥其创新作用,是城市可持续发展及竞争力的根源和保证。创造阶层理论为城市可持续发展发现了新道路。创造阶层的兴起将深刻地影响城市的可持续发展,中国城市应当采取措施兴起创造阶层。城市可以通过规划建设提高人居环境质量、增加城市便利性,通过制度创新扩展人的自由、提供创新的制度环境,而积累人力资本特别是兴起创造阶层,从根本上增强城市可持续发展能力。     

CULTURAL ECONOMY AND THE CREATIVE FIELD OF THE CITY

I begin with a rough sketch of the incidence of the cultural economy in US cities today. I then offer a brief review of some theoretical approaches to the question of creativity, with special reference to issues of social and geographic context. The city is a powerful fountainhead of creativity, and an attempt is made to show how this can be understood in terms of a series of localized field effects. The creative field of the city is broken down (relative to the cultural economy) into four major components, namely, (a) intra‐urban webs of specialized and complementary producers, (b) the local labour market and the social networks that bind workers together in urban space, (c) the wider urban environment, including various sites of memory, leisure, and social reproduction, and (d) institutions of governance and collective action. I also briefly describe some of the path‐dependent dynamics of the creative field. The article ends with a reference to some issues of geographic scale. Here, I argue that the urban is but one (albeit important) spatial articulation of an overall creative field whose extent is ultimately nothing less than global.     

INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHICAL ECONOMIES OF CREATIVITY, ENTERPRISE AND THE CREATIVE INDUSTRIES

This special issue brings together creativity and enterprise through the geographies of the creative industries. In recent years the focus of academic debate has privileged business and corporate economies, and so this issue seeks to contribute both empirically and theoretically to the burgeoning literature of creative industries. Economic geography offers a rich domain through which to engage with these debates, exploring the nuances of creativity and enterprise. Our aim, as well as bringing together a set of interesting papers, is to contribute critically to understanding the organization and spatial structure of creative industries and the broader creative economy.     

广东省创意阶层集聚的时空演变及其影响因素分析

以广东省21个地级市为例,利用ESDA分析方法和2000-2012年的数据,对广东省创意阶层的空间集聚特征和演变趋势、影响因素进行了初步探索。结果表明:广东省创意阶层的空间分布存在明显差异,主要集中在珠三角地区,东西两翼和粤北山区分布较少,与广东省经济格局较为一致,集聚呈现二元结构;在总体空间格局上,区域创意阶层分布存在显著的空间正相关特征,空间整体差异呈现先缩小后扩大的趋势;各地级市自身与周边地区的相互联系比较微弱,创意阶层高聚集区的辐射和带动作用不明显。从创意阶层空间集聚的影响因素看,不同时间段的显著影响因素存在差异。总体上,科技是持续显著影响广东省创意阶层空间集聚的因素,其次是社会人文因素和城市的工资水平。     

The spatialisation of the digital games industry: lessons from Ireland

This article draws on the concept of spatialisation to better understand the development of a digital games industry on the periphery of mainland Europe, on the island of Ireland. Positioning digital games within the cultural and creative industries, we explore how global networks of production in this industry get territorialised, negotiated and shaped by local factors. Drawing upon an industry-wide survey in Ireland we found that employment has grown by 400% in the last decade but that this rate of employment growth and its concentration in large urban areas masks significant ruptures and shifts which more detailed spatial, occupational and social analysis reveals: in particular, how the state, multinational game companies, and physical and human capital interact to shape an industry which is strong in middleware, localisation and support but weak in content development. An understanding of global digital games production networks and of occupational patterns in this industry is, we believe, crucial for national and European cultural policies for the digital games industry and for the cultural and creative industries more generally.     

Capitalism, cities, and the production of symbolic forms

A striking characteristic of contemporary capitalism is the increasing importance (in terms of growth, employment, revenue, etc.) of sectors whose outputs are imbued with significant cultural or symbolic content. Sectors of these sorts are predominantly, though not exclusively, located in large cities. I describe how these cities function as creative fields generating streams of both cultural and technological innovations. Post-Fordist cities are shown to be especially fertile terrains of commodified cultural production. A number of these cities have become major centres of image-producing industries such as film, music recording, or fashion clothing, and this phenomenon is also often associated with profound transformations of their physical landscapes. I argue that the economic foundations of these trends reside, in part, in the structural characteristics of image-producing industries, marked as they frequently are by modularized, network structures of production and a strong proclivity to geographic agglomeration. At the same time, the main centres of the contemporary cultural economy are caught up in insistent processes of globalization. I suggest that after an initial phase of product standardization and concentrated development in only a few major centres, the cultural economy of capitalism now appears to be entering a new phase marked by increasingly high levels of product differentiation and polycentric production sites. I also submit that the contemporary cultural economy of capitalism constitutes a historical shift beyond consumer society as such.     

‘Innovation is a dirty word’: contesting innovation in the creative industries

Innovation is a term that is used and defined in many different ways. This holds for innovation in general, but particularly for innovation in the creative industries. In cultural policy and in academic literature, the creative industries are often addressed in the relation to their innovative capacities, yet a shared conceptualisation of innovation in this sector is lacking. This paper seeks to develop a conceptualisation of innovation in the creative industries based on 43 interviews with creative workers about their views and practices. Results indicate that creative workers articulate numerous views on innovation, with three main approaches: innovation as something completely new, innovation as a contribution to society and innovation as a continuous recombination of new and existing elements, with the latter being most prevalent in the creative industries and considered a central (by-product of the) process of creative production that is highly contextual to specific localities and fields.     

基于空间分析方法的武汉市创意产业空间集聚演化研究

通过ArcGIS利用区位商、最近邻距离分析、核密度分析与定向分布分析等多种方法综合分析武汉市创意产业空间集聚的演变特征。结果表明,武汉市创意产业总体呈集聚状态,依据发展水平差异可分为核心区、潜力区与待发展区,并主要集聚在汉口"核心圈"与武昌"潜力轴"上。城市内创意产业功能分布与集聚分布主要呈由内向外扩展的演变特征。但根据产业特征、发展基础与发展阶段的不同,不同创意产业部门在不同区域的集聚形态、集聚强度、空间演化过程及发展趋势存在差异。这些差异与创意人才机构、文化传播设施以及创意交流空间集聚存在密切联系。     

Four models of the creative industries

What is the dynamic value of the creative industries from the economic perspective? This paper seeks to answer this question by proposing four models of the relationship between the creative industries and the whole economy, then examining the evidence for each. We find that growth models fit the data well, but not everywhere. We discuss the methodological and empirical basis for this finding and its implications for economic and cultural policy.     

北京美术产业对地方文化的嵌入性程度分析

北京十一五规划指出北京将大力发展文化产业,尤其是文化创意产业。美术是文化产业中最具有创意色彩的产业部门,北京是中国最重要的美术产业中心,近5年来出现了一批美术创意产业集中区。本文使用近十多年来国外经济地理学家频繁使用的嵌入概念分析北京的美术产业。本文所采用的嵌入概念更强调KarlPolanyi的观点,以北京三个主要美术产业区798艺术区、宋庄画家村、观音堂文化大道为研究地点,通过分析实地访谈资料、艺术家和画廊的网站资料,探讨企业和艺术家在作品风格、市场定位、企业分布、企业制度等方面是如何嵌入北京地方制度文化和意识形态文化的。本文认为在把握嵌入程度,避免过度地方化的程度上有待未来讨论。     

媒介-空间辩证法:创意城市理论新解

本文采用思辨方法,以作者对现代城市空间的观察,以及"媒介物"和"媒介表征"在城市空间的渗透,作为出发点,探讨媒介与城市空间的辩证关系,增进有关媒介和城市及其相互作用的认识。文章指出媒介-空间辩证法的知识基础,来自于新兴交叉学科"媒介与传播地理学";然后对媒体的空间性和空间化过程及其在城市空间的具体表现和可能影响,进行了初步分析,建立了媒体与城市空间的交互分类体系;通过借用"媒介的物化"和"物的媒介化"思想,将媒体与城市空间的辩证关系,与创意城市的理论探讨相关联,指出媒介-城市空间辩证法对于创意城市的理论建构,具有重要的启发意义。     

Brave new world

This article asks if China can develop a truly creative economy and follow the lead of South Korea, Japan, Hong Kong, Taiwan and Singapore. If the benefits flowing from the creative economy (and creative industries) are so strategic to government, we need to ask what impact this re‐evaluation of creativity will have on a country often identified as having an overly regulated cultural sector. While there is ample evidence to support the idea of a dormant and often parasitic cultural sector, this article points to some areas where creativity is emerging as inputs into production, distribution and consumption.     

Youthful Creativity in Regional Australia: Panacea for Unemployment and Out‐Migration?

This paper addresses the theme of youth out‐migration from rural Australia, in the context of recent policy discussions about creativity and its role in regional development. Ethnographic fieldwork in one rural location – the New South Wales Far North Coast – is drawn upon to highlight how creative industries are being cast as a potential way of promoting cultural activities and jobs for young people, and in turn, how they might be imagined as a means to mitigate youth out‐migration. Yet, creative industries have contradictory employment and social outcomes. Creative industries are likely to generate higher rates of youth participation in economic activities than public data reveal. However, strategies for future job growth should also consider the limitations and instabilities of creative industry employment. Second, and more broadly, the paper discusses those socio‐cultural dimensions of nascent creative industries that may have a more substantial impact when conceived as part of strategies to stem youth exodus from rural areas. Creative activities may contribute to rural development in indirect ways, especially if linked to policy goals of increased tolerance of youth activities, better provision of cultural services, and improved well‐being for young people. While formal job‐creation may be limited, creative industries could mitigate some of the impacts of youth migration to cities by enriching regional social life and mediating perceptions of the advantages and drawbacks of rural versus urban life. This kind of policy imagination requires a shift in attitudes towards young people and a more genuine commitment to encourage young people to feel that they belong in non‐metropolitan areas.     

CREATIVE CLUSTERS IN BERLIN: ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND THE QUALITY OF PLACE IN PRENZLAUER BERG AND KREUZBERG

Urban creative clusters are currently a major focus of attention, as their prominent position in both local political and academic circles makes evident. Many authors stress the importance of spatial concentration for creative industries. However, only a few studies have focused on the individual entrepreneur. As a result, empirical evidence of the meaning of urban place as a site for social networks and a space for inspiration is still scarce. This is of some consequence as entrepreneurs provide a crucial link between creative activities and economic change and development. This study contributes to the existing literature by investigating how different creative entrepreneurs choose and evaluate their location. Using qualitative interviews with entrepreneurs in two creative clusters in the Berlin neighbourhoods Prenzlauer Berg and Kreuzberg, this article shows the significance of the look and feel of specific places and explains how and for whom local networks are important.     

旅游创造性破坏模型述评

旅游影响与旅游演化是旅游研究的重点与热点,论文对旅游影响与旅游演化领域近来发展的旅游创造性破坏模型进行了述评。在介绍创造性破坏的理论基础与社会背景之后,论文评述了旅游创造性破坏模型取得的新成果,如把旅游商品化与创新看作旅游影响与演化的主动力、发展阶段的多因子判断、指标变化的非线性、资本在旅游利益主体互动中的主导地位等,同时也对该模型在应用范围、阶段特征与划分、旅游影响与演化机制等方面的不足,并对其今后研究进行了展望。     

国外创意旅游内涵研究

创意旅游从旅游活动发展伊始便在实践层面一直存在,但直到近几年才由理查德(Greg Richards)和瑞蒙德(Crispin Raymond)首先在真正意义上提出。这一概念的提出,主要源于西方社会创意趋势(creative turn)的出现,并且逐渐蔓延到经济、社会的各个层面。创意旅游因创意趋势被正式提出,因源于创意而具有天然的独特内涵,这也使得它与"传统的旅游形式"相区别,首先表现为创意旅游具有极强的"活动参与性"。特别值得强调的是,这种区别更多的表现为本质上的差别而不仅仅是时间上的先后次序及形式上的改变。     

The UNESCO Convention on the Diversity of Cultural Expressions as a coordination framework to promote regulatory coherence in the creative economy

The present article aims to inquire about business convergence in creative industries from the perspective of cultural diversity. It is based on the premise that the recognition of the creative and innovative component of the so-called ‘creative industries’ or the ‘creative economy’ confirms the need for non-economic factors and particularly cultural concerns to be taken into account in regulatory efforts addressing those industries. It examines the way new technologies and business convergence may affect the ‘trade and culture debate’ vis-à-vis the World Trade Organization (WTO), and how the 2005 UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions (CDCE) may respond in a relevant manner to challenges brought therefrom. Despite its weakly binding language, the CDCE contains principles, objectives and rules that set a comprehensive framework for policy ‘related to the protection and promotion of the diversity of cultural expressions’ at the national, regional and international levels. A fundamental piece in such an approach is the explicit integration of cultural concerns into the concept of sustainable development. This article argues that the material and economic perspective adopted in the CDCE, based on the production and consumption of cultural goods and services, remains relevant and pertinent in the creative economy, despite business convergence. By prioritizing policy and regulatory coordination, it maintains that the main elements enshrined in the CDCE should be employed to contribute to greater coherence in view of the objective of promoting cultural diversity, including vis-à-vis the WTO and other international organizations, and puts forward potential paths for such coordination.