THE ANALYSIS OF GOLD COINS—A COMPARISON OF RESULTS OBTAINED BY NON-DESTRUCTIVE METHODS

This paper discusses a systematic difference between the results found when one series of Dark-Age gold coins were analysed both by neutron activation and by specific gravity analysis and when a second series of similar coins was analysed by the Oxford Milliprobe and by specific gravity. No reason is given for this systematic difference, although there is evidence that all three methods are slightly in error, two of them giving results for gold which are too high and the specific gravity method giving results which are too low.     

INVESTIGATION ON ROMAN LEAD GLAZE FROM CANOSA: RESULTS OF CHEMICAL ANALYSES*

Five sherds of green glazed pottery excavated at Canosa (Apulia) in Italy have been analysed by scanning electron microscopy. The aim of the investigation was to determine the chemical composition of the glazes and thus obtain information on the methods used in their production. The glazes were all of the high‐lead type, coloured green by the addition of copper. Intermediate layers, observed at the interface between the glaze and body and giving the appearance of an applied white slip, were the result of the crystallization of lead feldspar from the molten glaze. Non‐calcareous clays were used in the production of the pottery bodies. Concentration profiles from the glaze exterior to the body suggested that the glazes were produced by applying a suspension consisting of lead oxide plus silica to the bodies. On the basis of the glaze and body compositions, it is suggested that the Canosa glazed pottery was produced locally.     

TRACE ELEMENT CONTENT OF ROMAN LEAD BY NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS

The trace element contents of 13 lead pigs and 20 water pipes, all of Roman origin, were determined by instrumental neutron activation analysis. The contents of Cu, As, Ag, Sn, Sb, and Au were determined with an experimental reproducibility of ±7%; the analytical values are given for all samples. The results are discussed with respect to the homogeneity of samples, the difference between pipes and pigs, the difference between bulk and joint material in pipes, and the possible correlation of the trace element contents with the place of origin.     

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONAL DATA AND THE COMPARISON OF ANALYSES

Recent statistical work on approaches to analysing compositional data - where variables sum to a constant for each row of a data matrix - may encounter difficulties when applied to data of the kind typically arising in scientific archaeology. The reason is that results obtained may be unsatisfactory from a substantive viewpoint for identifiable technical reasons. This paper explores and illustrates some possible resolutions of the problem. A feature of the approach used is to analyse subsets of the variables on separate scales. A synthesis of the results obtained from separate analyses is essential and the use of multiple correspondence analysis for this purpose is illustrated.     

ROMAN WINDOW GLASS: A COMPARISON OF FINDINGS FROM THREE DIFFERENT ITALIAN SITES

Thirty‐three samples of window glass and five glass lumps coming from three Italian archaeological sites—the Suasa excavations (Ancona, settled from the third century bc to the fifth to sixth centuries ad ), the Roman town of Mevaniola (Forlì‐Cesena, settled from the Imperial Age up to the fourth century ad ) and Theodoric's Villa of Galeata (Forlì‐Cesena, settled from the sixth century ad onwards)—were analysed to track the changes in the chemical composition and manufacturing technology of window glass through the centuries. The aims of this study were: (1) to establish the origin of the raw materials; (2) to verify the chemical homogeneity among samples coming from different sites and/or produced using different techniques; and (3) to sort the samples into the compositional groups of ancient glass. The analysis of all the chemical variables allowed two groups to be distinguished: (a) finds from Mevaniola and Suasa; and (b) finds from Galeata. All the samples had a silica–soda–lime composition, but the analysis of minor elements—in particular, of Fe, Mn, and Ti—made it possible to split the samples into two groups, with the higher levels of these elements always found in the Galeata samples (HIMT glass). In conclusion, it can be asserted that the main differences between the samples are related to their chronology.     

COMPARISON OF METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF SILVER AND GOLD IN SILVER COINS

A series of silver coins was analysed for silver and gold contents by three methods—chemical wet analysis, activation analysis and X-ray fluorescence using a point source linear spectrometer (milliprobe). The results indicate that while the X-ray fluorescence technique gives better agreement with chemical analysis for major components the use of activation analysis with automated equipment results in a considerable saving of time and has a high sensitivity for some minor components.     

THE METALLURGICAL EXAMINATION OF A DEBASED SILVER COIN OF MAXIMINUS DAZA ISSUED BY CONSTANTINE I

Non-destructive methods of chemical analysis always involve uncertainties, and in some circumstances they can be quite unsuitable for a true analysis. The greater value of a completely destructive chemical analysis and a comprehensive metallographic study for revealing the intentions of the moneyers and the entire metallurgical history of an ancient coin is demonstrated for the case of a rare silver-coated debased silver issue of the early fourth century A.D.     

DETECTION OF NEAR-SURFACE SILVER ENRICHMENT ON ROMAN IMPERIAL SILVER COINS BY X-RAY SPECTRAL ANALYSIS*

A collection of 218 Roman imperial silver coins, covering three centuries, was analysed non-destructively by two variants of X-ray spectral analysis. Electron beam excitation and energy-dispersive spectrometry was used for the analysis of the uppermost thin layer (3 μm) of each coin, while X-ray tube excitation and wavelength-dispersive spectrometry was applied for the analysis of thicker layers (30 μm), Ag and Cu as major constituents and 18 minor elements were determined quantitatively. Comparing the silver content of the obverse and the reverse of a coin, inhomogeneities could be identified. By comparison of the silver content of the upper thin and the thick surface layers, near-surface silver enrichment could be detected. Inhomogeneities and enrichments increase in the second and more so in the third century. A large scatter of the silver content and silver enrichment for coins of the same emperor was attributed to varying abrasion of Ag-enriched layers of the individual coins during decades of circulation.     

A COMPARISON OF THE CHEMICAL AND ENGINEERING CHARACTERISTICS OF ANCIENT ROMAN HYDRAULIC CONCRETE WITH A MODERN REPRODUCTION OF VITRUVIAN HYDRAULIC CONCRETE*

The authors have completed structural and compositional analysis of Roman hydraulic concrete using large cores taken from a variety of maritime structures. In 2005 an 8 m³ block of hydraulic, pozzolanic concrete was built in the sea at Brindisi (Italy), applying the materials and procedures specified by the Roman architect Vitruvius. Cores were taken at 6 months and 12 months after construction and subjected to the same analyses as the first‐century bc cores from pilae associated with the Villa of the Domitii Ahenobarbi at Santa Liberata. Results show that a slight variation on the Vitruvian formula yields results closest to the Roman material, and that substantial curing requires 12 months.     

INDUCTIVELY COUPLED PLASMA ATOMIC EMISSION SPECTROSCOPY ANALYSES OF ROMAN MILITARY COPPER-ALLOY ARTEFACTS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT MASADA,ISRAEL*

A selection of Roman military fittings and associated copper-alloy artefacts was analysed by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy. The method used was a variant on those previously published and gives very good precision and accuracy. The Roman metalwork analysed conforms extremely well to similar artefacts analysed from, contemporaneous European sites and suggests, despite the strongly ‘local’ nature of the Judaean legions, a considerable uniformity of alloying practice within the Roman army during the first century AD.     

ON THE STUDY OF SETTLEMENT SYSTEMS BY MATHEMATICAL METHODS

Two Soviet regional planners test several spatial interaction models with particular reference to the Kuznetsk Basin (Kemerovo Oblast), the southern belt of West Siberia and a portion of the North Caucasus (Krasnodar Kray). Existing techniques, such as gravity and potential models, are found to work well in areas with relatively uniform settlement patterns, such as the steppe zone of Krasnodar Kray or the southern Ob'-Irtysh subregion of West Siberia, but not in areas with sharp contrasts in settlement patterns, such as the Kuznetsk Basin, where a linear highly urbanized belt is enclosed between sparsely populated mountains. In such contrasting settings, a combination of methods is required.     

一枚珍贵的宫廷赏赐钱宣和通宝折二篆书银钱

在种类浩繁、异彩纷呈的中国古钱币世 界里,有一种独具风姿,光彩照人的泉苑奇 葩,这就是宫廷赏赐金银钱。 宫廷赏赐金银钱用金银制成,品质高 贵,身价不凡;跟流通钱不同,它主要用于 庆功赏赐,婚育馈赠,具有特殊的纪念性 质;且铸工精美、厚重规整,铸量极为稀 少。因此,宫廷赏赐金银钱是历代钱币收藏 家梦寐以求的箧中珍品。 今发现的宋代金银钱主要分为三类。第 一类是仿铸流通货币,如政和通宝折三篆书 银钱、宣和元宝小平楷书银钱、太平通宝折 二楷书银钱,隆兴通宝、乾道元宝小平金钱 等;第二类是在流通钱的基础上添加某种图 形,如19…     

REPRODUCIBILITY OF ELEMENTAL ANALYSES OF BASALTIC STONE ARTEFACTS BY QUADRUPLE ICP–MS USING DIFFERENT SAMPLE SIZES AND DIGESTION METHODS,WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Using high‐precision inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP–MS), we measured >40 elements in basalts sampled by diamond micro‐drills to evaluate the effectiveness of different digestion methods and the reproducibility of elemental analysis for different sample sizes from 5 mg to 100 mg. The results indicate that those elements that are most suitable for geochemical characterization, such as rare earth elements (REE), high‐field strength elements (HFSE) and certain mobile elements (Rb, Sr, Th, U), show excellent reproducibility with an average relative standard deviation (RSD) of 3% between open‐beaker and pressured ‘bomb’ digestion methods. This observation rules out the presence of refractory phases such as zircon, which can only dissolve in pressured ‘bombs’, and suggests that the results from open‐beaker digestion are reliable. The ICP–MS data for powders of different weights ranging from 10 to 100 mg collected from two fine‐grained basalt artefacts display excellent reproducibility, with a RSD of <5% for the most important elements. The reproducibility is reduced when including the 5 mg weight fraction (RSD of ～2–9%), which is still sufficient for archaeological applications. Our results demonstrate the usefulness of 10 mg samples for elemental measurement, which is valuable for geochemical characterization and sourcing of fine‐grained basalt artefacts from museum collections that require minimal destructive sampling.     

ORIGIN,AUTHORSHIP, AND INTERPRETATION OF YONG ZI BA FA (THE EIGHT METHODS OF THE CHARACTER YONG)

永字八法描述了楷書八種筆畫的技法。它自9–11世紀間問世之後，對中國書 法筆法產生了深遠的影響。八法既是對漢字筆畫形態的最早歸納，又體現了 漢字筆順的萌芽意識，在中國文字學史上也起了一定的作用。本文對永字八 法的由來、創作者、含義等問題作出文獻學梳理與全面的思考，以更準確地 討論它在中國書法史上的地位。     

DISCRIMINATION BETWEEN ETRUSCAN POTTERY AND RECENT IMITATIONS BY MEANS OF THERMAL ANALYSES

Black bucchero and red pottery of Etruscan production (Cerveteri, seventh-fifth century B.C.), made from the local Pliocene clay, acquire the property of quickly adsorbing and releasing water after heating up to 300°C. Thermal analysis thus allows easy discrimination between ancient artefacts and recent imitations found to be impervious to water.     

宣统年造大清国币系列币模乃维也纳造币厂所制

清末开始引进机器制币后,各省自行其是,促使户部为整顿圜法而设置了造币总厂。在此统一币制的过程中,曾于宣统二年(1910年)依《币制则例》颁布后的型制,试制标示为“宣统年造” 与“大清银币”或“大清铜币”、单位为“圆、角、分、厘” 系列的标准国币。《中国钱币》2001年第3期刊载黄志明先生大作,在论及此系列     

浙江省造光绪元宝楷书版银币制作时间考

中国是世界最早使用钱币的国家之一,有关这方面收藏的历史可谓“源远流长”,但长久以来泉界始终有“重收藏轻研究”及“厚古薄今”的现象,只专注着眼于钱币的本身,未就货币史上的地位与考古发现的结合。加上史料记载不全或保管不当,许多钱币书籍上出现错误的叙述,影响现阶段泉学的精确性与其研究深度,浙江省造光绪元宝“楷书”版就是其中一个例子。浙江机制银币与银元局开办概述浙江省地处沿海,很早就已使用外国银洋,但其大量产制银元是民国成立以后的事。因此龙银上铸有“浙江省造”者稀少,七钱二分银元有此字样之更为银币中的大珍品,…     

INVESTIGATION OF THE CONTENT OF ANCIENT TIBETAN METALLIC BUDDHA STATUES BY MEANS OF NEUTRON IMAGING METHODS

Many important cultural and religious objects from Asia consist of outer metallic shapes, usually bronze, which fully enclose inner contents made of organic materials such as wood, bark, paper, textile, plants and others. Bronze and other metallic materials, such as copper and silver, are generally more transparent to neutrons than to X‐rays. However, organic materials are less transparent to neutrons than to X‐rays and therefore organic materials, enclosed by metallic materials, can be made visible with neutrons. Therefore, neutron imaging (radiography and tomography) was found to be an ideal tool for the inspection of objects that consist of metal outside and organic materials inside. This has been successfully demonstrated here with four metallic Tibetan Buddha statues, providing archaeometry with a powerful new tool. The first successful applications of this novel technique are described in this article. Further possible and useful applications of neutron imaging of cultural objects are outlined.