Multidisciplinary analysis of a mummified cranium claimed to be that of a medieval execution victim

This article presents a multidisciplinary analysis of a human skull with preserved soft tissue curated by a small museum in Boscastle, Cornwall, UK. The skull lacks a mandible and is coated in a black tar-like substance. Records left by a previous museum curator (now deceased) claimed the skull to be the head of a medieval execution victim. The skull was purportedly recovered from a London church that was destroyed during the Second World War where it had been kept in a carved oak box. If these details are correct, the skull would appear to have been venerated as a relic. The skull and box have been analysed using a range of techniques including computerised tomography, laser scanning, microscopy, infrared spectroscopy and radiocarbon dating. These analyses demonstrated the skull in fact to be that of an Egyptian mummy dating from the Ptolemaic period. Other instances have been noted of parts of Egyptian mummies being presented as European saintly relics, and the ‘Boscastle skull’ would appear to be an example of such. A wider point illustrated by the work presented here is that sufficient application of modern analytical techniques may reveal considerable information regarding human remains which otherwise have little or no provenance. This point strengthens arguments for the retention of such remains by curating institutions.     

TECHNOLOGICAL STUDY OF PTOLEMAIC – EARLY ROMAN FAIENCE FROM MEMPHIS,EGYPT*

Fourteen fragments of faience vessels from the Ptolemaic/Roman period found at the Egyptian site of Memphis, near Cairo, were analysed by SEM. The fragments included high‐relief polychrome vessels, which are first produced in numbers in this period. Analysis allowed the composition and microstructure of the vessels to be assessed and conclusions drawn as to the raw materials of manufacture. Combining this information with archaeological evidence from excavation of the kilns and associated finds, it was possible to reconstruct the production technology of the vessels.     

Ancient Egyptian Pottery from the Subsurface Floodplain of the Saqqara–Memphis Area: Its Mineralogical and Geochemical Implications*

Potsherds recovered from the Saqqara–Memphis floodplain in Egypt, dated according to their typology and radiocarbon dating of the included sediments, are analysed geochemically and mineralogically to identify source materials and fabrication characteristics. Pottery layers were identified and potsherds were recovered from several settlement levels. Sherd typology was used to identify sherds from four periods (the Old and New Kingdoms, and from the Late Period to the Ptolemaic). The Pharaonic pieces were found at depths of between 8 and 12 m and the later material was between 6 and 3 m. Chemical analyses of the potsherds revealed three main source materials: local Nile silt, marl clay and mixed Nile silt–marl. Two marl clay types were recognized: marl clay from Upper Cretaceous marine sediment and another one from Late Pliocene deltaic sediments. The mineralogical composition of the pottery samples shows that the estimated firing temperature was about 850–900°C. No consistent differences in sherd mineralogy and geochemistry were found according to pottery types, so that the ancient Egyptian potters used essentially the same materials throughout the Pharaonic period. However, this initial study has revealed the existence of extensive pottery‐rich occupation sites buried within the Nile floodplain deposits between Memphis and Saqqara.     

Radiocarbon dating of the bronze age bone pins from Eurasian steppe

Bone catapult and hammer-headed pins played one of very specific roles in funerary offerings in the Bronze Age graves uncovered in the Eurasian Steppes and the North Caucasus. Scholars used different types of pins as key grave offerings for numerous chronological models. For the first time eight pins have been radiocarbon dated. ¹⁴C dating of bone pins identified the catapult type pin as the earliest one. They marked the period of the Yamnaya culture formation. Then Yamnaya population produced hammer-headed pins which became very popular in other cultural environments and spread very quickly across the Steppe and the Caucasus during 2900–2650 cal BC. But according to radiocarbon dating bone pins almost disappeared after 2600 cal BC.     

The possible influence of post-harvest objectives on Cucurbita maxima subspecies maxima and subspecies andreana evolution under cultivation at the Argentinean Northwest: an archaeological example

This paper investigates the possible links between postharvest activities and methods of plant husbandry or management of Cucurbita maxima ssp. maxima and C. maxima ssp. andreana in the prehispanic Argentinean Northwest area. Microscopic methods were used to assess the micromorphological characteristics of modern specimens of South American Cucurbita and Lagenaria species to obtain diagnostic anatomical traits. These traits were then used as criteria for identifying archaeological Cucurbitaceae rind remains from domestic to funerary contexts of the Pampa Grande archaeological site (1720 ± 50 bp, cal. 259–433 ad). Following the taxonomic identification of the archaeological plant remains, they were futher assessed for signs of human selection or possible cultivation, including: rind thickness, qualitative characters (lobbing, wartiness and colour) and postharvest traits (artificial shape, charring, staining and decoration of sherds). The results indicate the presence of Lagenaria siceraria together with spontaneous, intermediate and domestic C. maxima morphotypes. Different subspecies maxima morphtypes were recognized: those intended as food, having thin pericarps to facilitate consumption and those intended also as food, but as containers too, as in Lagenaria, in which the rinds are thickened and lignified. The latter morphotype may possibly represent a strategy of postharvest intensification, but not through new processing techniques, but through the development of landraces with a longer fruit shelf life, resulting from changing husbandry criteria to selective pressures over cultivated stands.     

Reflections into Ptolemaic glass: Colorless,white, blue,and green inlays from the workshop of Tebtynis

Inlays range among the most aesthetically pleasing and technically challenging glasses produced in the Ptolemaic period. Despite the central role of this phase in the history of glass technology, little is known about the recipes and the technological knowledge of the Egyptian artisans. This paper will thus focus on the study of the materials from the secondary workshop of Tebtynis (Fayum oasis, Egypt). We report the first multi-methodological study comprising textural, chemical, and mineralogical analyses (optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive system, electron probe microanalysis, and μ-Raman spectroscopy) on a set of 81 colorless, white, blue, and green samples carefully selected among the 800+ glasses from the craft area now stored at the Museo Egizio, Turin (Italy). Our study offers the biggest compositional database of well-dated Ptolemaic glasses currently available in the literature, highlighting some interesting novelties regarding the silica and alkali sources, and the coloring and opacifying techniques employed. The results suggest a specialized craft of traditional origin, but open to innovation and experimentation, as expected from transitional phases.     

DAMAGE ASSESSMENT AND PRESERVATION OF AN EGYPTIAN SILVER VASE (300–200 BC)*

An Egyptian metal vase from the Ptolemaic period was investigated metallurgically and fractographically. The metal is nearly pure silver. Despite its high purity (in archaeological terms) it is severely embrittled and cracked, mainly along grain boundaries. Factors contributing to this damage are work-hardening and residual microstructural deformation (slip and twinning), corrosion along slip lines and twin boundaries, corrosion in bauds that are the remains of coring, large equiaxed grains, externally applied forces and internal residual stresses. The metal is now friable. This must be taken into account during any further restoration of the vase: a procedure is suggested.     

CHEMICAL AND MINERALOGICAL ANALYSES OF GALLO-ROMAN WALL PAINTING FROM DIETIKON,SWITZERLAND

Around 90 samples of Roman wall painting dating from the first to the third century AD were analysed using different analytical techniques: X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence, infrared spectrometry, scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectrometry, optical microscopy and physico-chemical tests. The identified pigments are: ash, calcite, carbon black, celadonite, cinnabar, Egyptian Blue, glauconite, goethite, hematite and red lead. Pigment mixtures were used to get other colours such as brown, pink or purple. Three types of plaster were used: a first, and most dominant, with river sand, a second with crushed tile for damp places and a third, to which cinnabar was exclusively applied, was prepared with crushed calcite crystals.     

Ancient Egyptian water-clocks: A reappraisal

The Egyptian time system of dividing the night into 12 “hours” so that the length of the “hour” varied with the seasons made the perfection of any clock difficult. However, the flowerpot-shaped outflow water-clock possibly invented by a court official, Amenemhet, during the reign of Amenhotep I, had the potential of being accurate to within about 15 min. While there is good evidence that the decan star-clocks were used to indicate astronomical night (that is the hours between sunset and sunrise, excluding twilight) our analysis of the Karnak clock suggests that water-clocks of the Eighteenth Dynasty may have been used for timing civil night (sunset to sunrise). Our analysis of the later Ptolemaic water-clock fragments indicates that they were used in Lower Egypt and that they also timed civil night. The Ptolemaic outflow water-clocks were basically the same as the earliest known water-clock described in Amenemhet's epitaph, modified in height and monthly scales for use in Lower Egypt. Ktesibios' invention of a simpler and generally more accurate inflow water-clock, of which there is only one very late Egyptian example, probably quickly supplanted the outflow clock.     

Ancient Egypt in Brazil: A Theoretical Approach to Contemporary Uses of the Past

In this paper we consider archaeology as a product of social interaction, and discuss how ancient Egyptian materiality has been an important part of identity building in Brazil. We begin by reviewing our theoretical setting, and suggest that a postmodern approach is most helpful to our goal of understanding the social context of the public uses of archaeology. The paper then turns to the trajectory of “Egyptomania” in Brazil, from the 19th century onwards, highlighting the importance of cultural movements such as Kardecism and Masonry in this trend. We argue that the use of Egyptian subjects in Brazil has connections with social inequality, racism, and gender biases. Finally, we present a case study on positive recent trends in the presentation of ancient Egypt in school textbooks which highlights critical approaches to the use of ancient Egyptian subjects in contemporary Brazil.     

The Beginnings of Pyrotechnology: Neolithic and Egyptian Lime Plaster

Abstract

Characterization of pre-pottery Neolithic and Egyptian plasters has been carried out, with emphasis on microstructural observations with the scanning electron microscope. Samples from Asikli Hüyük, Çayönü Tepesi, Tell Ramad, and Jericho were examined; the results show that true lime plasters were utilized in the aceramic Neolithic. The quantity of material used and the temperature necessary for limestone calcination imply that some sort of crude kilns must have been employed. The availability of this technology makes understandable the subsequent rapid development of fired pottery. Samples of Egyptian plaster from Timna (ca. 1400–1200 B.C.) were found to be lime, contradicting Lucas' statement that lime plasters were unknown in Egypt prior to the Ptolemaic period. Gypsum plasters of both Neolithic and Egyptian origin have also been characterized.     

Early Imports in the Late Bronze Age of South‐Western Iberia: The Bronze Ornaments of the Hypogea at Monte da Ramada 1 (Southern Portugal)

The composition and manufacture of Late Bronze Age metallic artefacts from funerary and domestic contexts of southern inland Portugal was studied. The prevailing trend comprises binary bronzes (10.3 ± 2.1 wt% Sn) showing deformed equiaxial grains, annealing twins and slip bands. The alloy composition is somewhat independent of artefact type, while the manufacture seems to rely on artefact function and the skilfulness of the metallurgist. The technological characteristics were linked with archaeological and chronological features, disclosing some artefacts of uncommon composition, such as low‐tin bronze bracelets (4.3–7.1 wt% Sn) associated with ornaments of exotic materials (glass and Egyptian faience beads, and also ostrich egg shell beads). The assemblage testifies to an archaic trade with the Mediterranean region before the establishment of the first Phoenician colonies on the southern Iberian coast.     

The canopic jars of Rameses II: real use revealed by molecular study of organic residues

Four blue-glazed faience jars, on exhibition in the Louvre Museum, are referred to as the canopic jars of Rameses II. Their recent typological re-examination rendered this original assignment questionable. In order to clearly determine their use, a study of two successive organic residues from the canopic jars, using molecular biomarkers analysed by GC-MS and LC-MS and absolute dating by ¹⁴C, was initiated. The results revealed that these two materials were not contemporary to the reign of Rameses II. The first one, scraped from the interior face of one jar, was identified as an unguent made of coniferous oil and animal fat and dated from the Third Intermediate Period. The second one, originally stored with glued linen inside one jar, is likely an embalming substance, made of pure vegetable resin (Pistacia) and dated from the Ptolemaic Period. These results clarify a controversy which has been lasting over a century. The famous blue-glazed faience jars are not the canopic jars of Rameses II but are confirmed as situlae which were reused at least two times: first to store unguents during the Intermediate Period and later to store embalming packages of an unknown person during the Ptolemaic period.     

Über die Aufhänge- und Anzeigevorrichtung der ägyptischen Waage der Pharaonenzeit

A number of different and partly contradictory interpretations about the suspension and the indicator system of the ancient Egyptian balance has been given so far. In this article previous explanations of these devices are presented and critically considered; at the same time the balance of the Egyptians is included in the complete evolution of this instrument. Based on original Egyptian colour drawings on papyrus taken from the Book of the Death and considering weighing techniques, it is stated that all interpretations given so far are not capable of providing a satisfactory explanation of the function of these devices. The interpretation given already in 1888 by Sir Flinders Petrie comes closest to the real function of the indicator system: According to his assumption the device consisted of a solid pointer attached to the beam, in relation to which a plumbline was observed after the oscillations had stopped. This interpretation, however, has to be varied or to be complemented by taking into consideration the special drawing technique of the ancient Egyptians: Processes were drawn in a reproduction technique which consisted in the simultaneous combination of a top view and a side view. A new hypotheses about the function of the suspension and the indicator system of the ancient Egyptian balance is presented, which has the advantage of agreeing completely with the Egyptian drawing technique and which, in addition, ensures optimum precision of the weighing procedure.     

法老时代的埃及妇女在家庭中的地位

Although many scholars have assert that the Egyptian women’s position in the family was high during the time of the Pharaohs, no research in China has made a comprehensive and systematic discussion over this issue so far. Based on both documents and archaeological materials, this article approaches this question in three aspects: (1) Egyptian women’s position in the family economy; (2) the affection between the husband and the wife; (3) the position and role of the mother. __________ Translated from Shijie Lishi 世界历史 (World History), 2004, (2): 11–20     

岩画断代研究——科技考古学领域中一个亟待解决的问题

探索和研究表明,岩画断代问题仍然是困扰岩画研究的难题之一,其主要原因是岩画本身不能够提供可供断代的直接依据。本文综述了目前岩画断代研究中经常使用的自然科学和考古学方法及其存在的问题,提出应用AMS14C是今后研究我国岩绘画断代问题的首选方法,解决岩刻画的断代问题则主要有赖于微腐蚀方法。     

Landscapes of death: GIS-based analyses of chullpas in the western Lake Titicaca basin

The western Lake Titicaca basin is marked by above-ground funerary towers, known as chullpas, located in a variety of geographical contexts and dating to the Late Intermediate Period, or LIP (AD 1100–1450), and Late Horizon (AD 1450–1532). Over the years, interpretations of these tombs have concentrated upon their roles as loci for ancestral veneration and their abilities to perpetuate memory, delineate social ties and territories, and demarcate access to resources. These views share the implicit or explicit assumption that these mortuary structures were intended to be highly visible. Yet this assumption has never been formally tested. By using GIS-based geospatial tools and statistical analysis, this paper investigates the extent to which chullpas surveyed in the western Lake Titicaca basin visually dominated the landscape. These tombs were not positioned in random locations; they exhibit a high degree of clustering and were built in highly visible areas that could be seen from sites of occupation and regions of economic importance such as Lake Umayo. This paper suggests that this landscape of death was deliberately constructed to have an enduring social impact.