郑和下西洋——世界地理大探险的第一环

十五、十六世纪之交,是世界历史上的“地理大探险”时代,又称“地理大发现”、“发现新航路”、“发现新大陆”等。所谓新航路“发现”,是指欧洲人由欧洲经非洲直航至亚洲,但不等于亚、非之间的航路从未曾开辟,而中国郑和(1371—1433)所率舰队之七下西洋尤其不可忽视;所谓新大陆“发现”,是指欧洲等旧大陆生活者不知大西洋彼岸另有大陆,不等于该大陆无人居住,而“印第安人”正是古老“美洲”的旧主人。     

郑和下西洋·新航路开辟·明清景德镇瓷器外销欧美

古代景德镇瓷器,不仅满足省内、国内人民的需要,而且还大量向海外输出,受到各国人民的广泛欢迎。从宋代开始,景德镇瓷器通过海上丝绸之路传播到亚洲、非洲的许多国家。明代郑和七下西洋和新航路开辟之后,海外交通更加兴盛,海洋贸易更加拓展,景德镇瓷器对外贸易随之大幅增长,     

新航路开辟的宗教动因

国内大多数书刊中,在分析15、16世纪新航路开辟的动因时,都只提到经济因素,主要包括两方面的内容:其一,西方通往东方的商路被土耳其人和阿拉伯人所阻,以西班牙和葡萄牙为首的西欧国家,为发展与东方的贸易,获得比较充裕的香料等东方商品,迫切需要开辟一条通往东方的新航路;其二,由于商品经济的发展,西欧各国急需大量的金银和货币,渴求东方的“黄金”。在这种经济动机促使下,当时已完成了政治统一和中央集权的西、葡两国,依靠较为发达的航海术和造船业,借用新的地理知     

新航路开辟与北美社会再建

新航路开辟是世界史上划时代的伟大事件。它不仅促使西欧告别中世纪的农业社会,步入近代的工业社会,加速以封建主义向资本主义的过渡;而且还“愈来愈彻底地”消灭世界各民族的“原始闭关自守的状态”,“愈来愈扩大”世界民族间“各个相互影响的活动范围”,“愈来愈大程度上”使“历史成为全世界的历史”。     

《中国通商图》：17—19世纪中西海上交流的视觉记忆

<正>15世纪末,西方地理大发现拉开了帷幕。伴随新航路开辟,葡萄牙、西班牙、荷兰、英国等国陆续航海东来,在东亚海域展开了政治、经济、军事力量的角逐。在这跨越数百年的交往过程中,中西方对彼此的认识经历了从想象到亲历再到记忆的过程。来自通商口岸的港埠图像是这段历史的产物,又是记忆的容器,更是文化的多棱镜,折射出不同时代、     

论清代中期清政府对外国货币的政策

16世纪末-17世纪初,随着东西方新航路开辟,外国商人较频繁地来到中国贸易。明清之际,外国商人来华购买中国商品,偶用外国货币支付。清康熙时,“时华洋互市,以货易（洋）银”,乾隆时“洋钱盛行”,到道光时期,外国货币“行用日广,公私出人,非此不济”①,似有垄断市     

郑和——海上丝绸之路的伟大旗帜和先驱

郑和下西洋，“比当年欧洲商船队在海域上初露帆影时所炫耀之‘大航海时代’——意大利人哥伦布横流大西洋，航行到达美洲早87年；比葡萄牙人达伽玛绕航好望角进入印度洋早92年；比另一位葡萄牙人麦哲伦完成绕航环球更早了116年”。     

哥仑布西航的科技理论基础

哥仑布是美洲新大陆的发现者。然而从哥仑布第一次远航归国时起,直至今天,对他的成功多有贬诋者。如说哥仑布是个“骗子”、“一个疯子”“神经很不正常”、“整个一生之中心理状态都有某种混乱”,说他的发现是“偶然的成功”等。应该怎样看待这位伟大的发现者的成功?本文仅就哥仑布西航思想形成中所依据的科技理论进行分析,进而对如何评价问题提出看法。一、博学多识与丰富的实践。哥仑布所处的时代,西欧人对“远东”还不甚了解。《马可波罗游记》中关于东方“黄金”的描写引起了西欧社会国王、封建贵族、僧侣以及商人日益炽热的欲望。配合寻找新航路,西欧人以极大的热情来进行探险。到哥仑布着手探险时,葡萄牙人在非洲海岸向南已进行了几十年探险并取得成就。马可波罗的著作深深吸引了哥仑布,他反复仔细阅读,不仅精读,还做了研究。座落在西班牙塞维尔的哥仑布纪念馆中,至今还保存着一部拉丁文的《马可波罗游记》,书上有哥仑布做过的眉批,一个富庶的、遥远的东方深深地吸引着他。     

高中英语阅读教学中的问题设计

目前，高中英语教学中的课堂提问普遍存在“三多，三少”的状况：即一问一答多，独立思考少；尖子生回答多，中下游学生回答少；给直接答案多，分析理解过程少。针对这些不足，本文从以下几方面进行探诗一、提问要诱发学生兴趣，忌直贵曲；二、提问设计要设阶梯，逐级攀登；三、提问设计须有“度”；四、提问设计应“巧”；五、提问要注意对学生回答内容的处理。     

传教士梦断上川岛

方济各·沙勿略(Francis Xarier),西班牙人,16世纪著名传教士,是耶稣会早期创始人之一。 新航路开辟后,沙勿略谋进中国进行“学术传教”。1552年7月,他同一位中国翻译和一个同伙一起搭乘圣他克罗切号船,从马六甲抵达上川岛。 上川岛,是一个离中国海岸约30海里的荒芜岛屿。当时明朝政府禁止同葡国通商,双方贸易只能私下进行。上川岛由于占据地利之便,成了中葡商人走私货物的集散地。因为贸易活动比较频繁,岛上停留     

Climate and energy security policies and measures: synergies and conflicts

Concerns about climate and energy security are leading to increased government intervention in the energy sector, in particular as they relate to the choice of energy supply options. While many of these options will improve both energy and climate security, many measures will benefit one while harming the other. This raises an important question for governments and energy planners: how can conflicts between climate and energy security be resolved? This article outlines some of the barriers and problems that may arise as governments and companies try to address climate and energy security concerns simultaneously in various energy supply areas. It concludes by arguing against choosing one objective over the other, and by outlining steps that can be taken to help resolve conflicts between the two agendas.     

我和我的兄弟姐妹

1938年．我出生在金沙江畔一个叫巴塘的小县城里。生在哪一天．至今不知道．因此．六十多年过去了．我从来也没有过过生日。     

Challenger and Chernobyl Lessons and Reflections

Abstract

It is argued that Psychological research on 'race' and 'ethnicity' issues presents a number of ethical problems. These relate to the sociopolitical impact of such research, particularly when it purports to find differences of an 'innate' character; to the use of naive subjects, particularly children, in research which is aimed at demonstrating their 'inferiority'; and, within the academic community itself, to the working relationships between researchers who believe in 'innate' 'race' differences and colleagues belonging to allegedly 'inferior' groups – this being particularly significant within a teaching environment. Although the 'race differences' question has a long and controversial history, ethical issues relating to the research process itself have received less focused attention. Moreover, replacement of the genetically obsolete concept of 'race' with the idea of 'ethnicity' does not solve the problem entirely, and the term 'ethnicity' is itself unsatisfactory in several respects.     

Power and Ethnicity History and Anthropology

This essay reflects on the relationship between anthropological and historical scholarship of ethnicity, picking up on themes explored by Andre Gingrich, by considering the epistemological and evidentiary limitations of social scientific and historical analysis and reconstruction. Beginning with the consideration of the pioneering transdisciplinary efforts of Robert Darnton and Clifford Geertz, it argues that many of the weaknesses ascribed to such efforts are actually part of the nature of social scientific investigation which, in the terms of Peter Winch, must take into account two sets of relationships: that of the relationship between the scientist and the phenomena that he or she observes and the symbolic system that he or she shares with other scientists, which can only be understood from the social context of common activity. How these two relationships challenge social scientific analysis of ethnicity are examined through a consideration of the difficulties of applying Anthony Smith's definition of an ethnie to either Fredrik Barth's classic essay on “Pathan Identity and its Maintenance” or Helmut Reimitz's study of Frankish identity. It concludes that neither anthropologists nor historians are simply describing societies as they are or as they were but rather attempt to describe societies as witnesses within them thought they should be, and we do this for our own society, not for those of the participants, past or present.     

Of Demons and Angels and Historical Humans: Some Events and Questions in Translation and Post-colonial Theory

In what follows, I attempt to show that a look at some curious examples of translations from European texts makes us think about issues in translation theory and post-colonial theory from a slightly different angle. The metaphor of translation can very well be employed for understanding the relation between European texts, and some texts and some social and political practices in India in the colonial period, and this in turn helps us look critically at what I shall call our fuzzy post-colonialism. I also argue that Walter Benjamin's metaphor of translation as the after-life of a work can be extended to posit two basic modes of after-life.     

后伊拉克时代与中国的内政外交--普遍主义与单边主义的冲突

"9·11"事件后,冷战后的国际政治格局发生了重大变化.其最大特征可以概括为以下两点:第一,确立了以唯一超级大国--美国为核心的以反恐为普遍主义的全球性安全阵线;第二,美国的爱国主义、民族主义戏剧性地高涨起来.就像当时有人强调因为全世界有60多个国家的人在世界贸易中心工作,所以对世贸中心的攻击就是对全世界的攻击那样,在美国国民中普遍存在着这样的观点:因为美国社会自身就是世界的缩影,所以星条旗也可被看作是超越一国国界的全人类的普遍象征.