AN INVESTIGATION OF THE PROVENANCE OF THE ROMAN AMPHORA CARGO FROM THE PLEMMIRIO B SHIPWRECK

Eighty-six Roman amphora sherds from the Plemmirio B shipwreck, off Sicily, have been analysed by neutron activation analysis. A large group representative of the amphora cargo, mainly of forms Africana 1 and Africana 2A (from the area of modern Tunisia), was subsequently defined. No differences between Africana 1 and Africana 2A samples were observed, thus implying a similar origin for both forms. The provenance of this cargo group was then investigated by comparison with a Roman amphora kiln data base. After elimination of the more mobile elements it was shown that the cargo amphorae were more likely to have been manufactured at kilns around Sullecthum rather than Leptis Minor. The analytical conclusions are thoroughly consistent with the known archaeological information.     

Hispania and the Atlantic Route in Roman Times: new Approaches to Ports and Trade

This paper explores the role of Hispania in the Atlantic route in Roman times. We analyse the different Atlantic Iberian territories along this route, based on recent archaeological advances and discoveries related to trade as well as the shipping infrastructure. The aim is to explain the origin and evolution of a new maritime area that was completely integrated with the political and commercial structure of the Empire, with trade routes that followed the coastal areas of the Iberian Peninsula all the way to the Mediterranean.     

Publications

Abstract

This paper presents the results of a fabric study of the late Roman coarse wares (3rd century–6th century A.D.) from the Roman coastal town of Potentia (Porto Recanati) Marche, Italy). The petrographic analysis established the presence of several imported coarse ware classes, originating from the eastern Mediterranean to northern Africa. Of particular interest are the Adriatic common wares, which allow us to examine and define the extent, scale, and configuration of ancient trade within Adriatic Italy. While it is difficult to trace trade routes, items transported as a secondary commodity, like regional coarse wares, can help in reconstructing ancient economic interaction. The burnished coarse ware discussed here documents the ancient N-S trade routes from the Po region to the central Adriatic. Moreover, the identification of a northern Italian ware in central Adriatic Italy shows that this burnished coarse pottery had economic value and was part of a wider distribution network within the Adriatic.     

Transport Amphorae in the West Hallstatt Zone: Reassessing Socio‐Economic Dynamics and Long‐Distance Mediterranean Exchange in Western Central Europe in the Early Iron Age

Trade and cultural relations between western Central Europe and the Mediterranean world in the Early Iron Age remain a major topic of discussion. The products exchanged were mainly connected with the ritual preparation and social consumption of Mediterranean wine. This article examines the question through a comparative study of transport amphorae from the entire West Hallstatt zone. The systematic analysis is based on a specialized study carried out on the material itself. Typological analyses allow us to identify where amphorae originated; previously this was thought to have been just Massalia but this now needs to be expanded to the whole Mediterranean Basin. An analysis of the distribution of amphorae enables us to identify the trajectory these products followed. A comparison with amphora types attested in potential ports in southern France and northern Italy suggests possible trade routes for specific types. Finally, a new chronological scheme for amphorae provides insights into the economic reasons behind these imports and the social impact these products had, enabling us to identify broader socio‐economic trends and long‐distance exchange patterns in western Central Europe.     

The Mineralogical Characteristics of the Lamboglia 2 Roman‐Age Amphorae from the Central Adriatic (Croatia)*

The mineralogical characteristics of four Lamboglia 2 Roman‐age amphorae excavated from ancient underwater shipwreck localities in the central Adriatic were investigated. X‐ray diffraction and optical microscopy analyses showed that the amphorae have similar primary mineral compositions, mainly consisting of quartz, plagioclase, potassium feldspar, diopside, illite and calcite, most probably originating from clayey Eocene flysch deposits used as raw materials in manufacture. The difference in mineral composition between these samples is recognized from the presence or absence of melilite, high‐magnesium calcite, aragonite, gypsum and analcime. It was shown that melilite is a secondary mineral formed during the firing process, while the others, which build up through incrustation of marine benthonic communities on the amphora walls and fill the cracks in the amphora bodies, were formed by crystallization in seawater. The firing of the original pieces of amphorae showed that melilite could be formed at temperatures higher than 800°C, most probably through interaction between calcite and silicate minerals present in the raw materials. The presence of melilite, and the absence of illite and calcite, were used to estimate the firing temperature of the amphorae during their production.     

ROMAN AMPHORA TRADE ACROSS THE STRAITS OF GIBRALTAR: AN ANCIENT ‘ANTI‐ECONOMIC PRACTICE’?

Summary.   Olive oil and fish products from the south of Hispania and North Africa played an important role in the Roman economy. The authors call attention to the asymmetrical distribution of archaeological data available on this subject, in particular the location of amphora kilns, and try to give an explanation, based on the evolution of European archaeology in the twentieth century.     

The Marausa Wreck,Sicily: interim report on a boat built in the Western Imperial Roman tradition

In 1991, the wreck of a late 3rd–early 4th century AD Roman merchant vessel was discovered on the west coast of Sicily that had carried North African amphora, tubuli, and other ceramics. The hull was dismantled and raised in 2011, including a keel hook‐scarfed to stem and sternposts, 39 pegged mortise‐and‐tenon joined planks, 43 frames with an irregular pattern of floor‐timbers, half‐timbers, and futtocks fastened to the planking with treenails and copper nails, sister‐keelsons and evidence of two stringers, 36 ceiling strakes, and the base of a bilge pump. Many repairs are indicated. The fairly flat bottom and round bilges, mortise‐and‐tenons, sister‐keelsons and lack of a coherent framing pattern, place the boat in the Western Imperial tradition.     

The 4th‐Century‐BC Mazotos Shipwreck,Cyprus: a preliminary report

Since November 2007 an underwater project has been carried out by the Archaeological Research Unit of the University of Cyprus, in collaboration with the Department of Antiquities, at a shipwreck on the south coast, 14 miles south‐west of Larnaca. Its cargo consists mainly of Chian amphoras and has been provisionally dated to the 3rd quarter of the 4th century BC. The good state of preservation of the site gives an opportunity for studying amphora stowage and the wreck‐formation process. Moreover, it can shed new light on sea‐routes and trade between Cyprus and the Aegean during the late Classical period. © 2010 The Author     

PROVENANCE DETERMINATION OF LAVA FLAGSTONES FROM THE ROMAN ‘VIA CONSOLARE FLAMINIA’PAVEMENT (CENTRAL ITALY) USING PETROLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS*

Trachyte lava flagstones from the northernmost stretch of the Roman ‘Via Consolare Flaminia’pavement and trachyte lavas from the most exploited quarries in Roman times were compared from a petrological point of view. ‘Via Consolare Flaminia’was the most important route used by the Romans to reach northern Italy and all the northern provinces of the Empire. A provenance for the flagstones as coming from the trachyte quarries of the Euganean Hills (Veneto region, northern Italy) is suggested by the similarity of both the fundamental mineral assemblage and the major trace element geochemistry. The location of the quarries of the Euganean Hills next to the harbours of the northern Adriatic Sea strongly supports the hypothesis that the Romans carried the flagstones by ship towards the coasts of the central Adriatic Sea.     

CHARACTERIZATION AND PROVENANCE OF LATE ANTIQUE WINDOW GLASS FROM THE PETRA CHURCH IN JORDAN*

Fifth‐ to seventh‐century window glass fragments from the Petra Church in Jordan were analysed by EPMA and spectrophotometry to characterize their optical properties and chemical composition. The objective of this study was to determine the provenance of the raw glass and the secondary production procedures of the window‐panes. Judging from the material evidence, both the crown window‐panes and possibly the rectangular samples were produced through glass‐blowing techniques. The chemical data show that the assemblage forms a homogeneous group of soda–lime–silica glass of the Levantine I type. The green glass, however, has higher silica and lower soda contents than the aqua‐blue fragments. The composition of one sample suggested the recycling of Roman glass. Our results confirm the trade of glass between the Levantine coast and Petra during Late Antiquity. No colouring agents other than iron were detected. Spectrophotometry confirmed the presence of iron and showed that the window fragments absorbed light relatively equally across the visible part of the spectrum. The windows thus seem to have provided an almost colourless illumination for the sacred interior.     

THE FIRST ARCHAEOMETRIC CHARACTERIZATION OF ROMAN MILLSTONES FOUND IN THE AQUILEIA ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE (UDINE,ITALY)*

An archaeometric study of all the Roman millstones preserved today in the National Archaeological Museum of Aquileia, the ancient capital of the X Regio Augustea –‘Venetia et Histria’ located on the Friuli plain (northeastern Italy), has been recently envisaged to define their geological–geographical provenance. We present here the results of the first step of the research, which is aimed at characterizing all of the definitely allochthonous lithologies. In order to carry out petrography on thin‐section and geochemical analyses, 10 small samples were picked out directly from Pompeian‐style millstones (catilli and/or metae) and rotary querns. Five different lithologies originating in various Italian regions were recognized: eight samples consist of pale‐ and dark‐grey lavas from the Venetian Volcanic Province, Vulsini Volcanic District (Latium), Etna Volcano and Pantelleria island (Sicily), whereas two samples were shown to be made of green garnet‐bearing schists (pietra ollare) from the Western Italian Alps. The presence of Alpine pietra ollare in northeastern Italy, used to produce pots and food containers, was established for numerous classical findings at Roman and Middle Age sites, but the analysed items represent the first evidence for the utilization of this kind of stone to produce mills during the Roman epoch.     

ACCESSORY MINERALS AS TRACERS IN THE PROVENANCING OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL MARBLES,USED IN COMBINATION WITH ISOTOPIC AND PETROGRAPHIC DATA*

Thirty‐eight archaeological marbles (Roman and medieval) from Modena and Reggio Emilia (northern Italy) were provenanced using the accessory minerals as tracers and the results were compared with those inferred for the same artefacts using isotope composition and MGS (maximum grain size of calcite grains). The number of inferred possible sources is generally lower when using the mineralogical method, which therefore seems to be suited to marble provenancing.     

Geoarchaeology of Sidon's ancient harbours,Phoenicia

Geoarchaeological data from Sidon's ancient harbour areas elucidate six evolutionary phases since the Bronze Age. (1) At the time of Sidon's foundation, during the third millennium BC, medium sand facies show the city's northern and southern pocket beaches to have served as proto-harbours for Middle to Late Bronze Age societies. (2) Towards the end of the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age, expanding international trade prompted coastal populations into modifying these natural anchorages. In Sidon's northern harbour, transition from shelly to fine-grained sands is the earliest granulometric manifestation of human coastal modification. The lee of Zire island was also exploited as a deep-water anchorage, or outer harbour, at this time. (3) Although localised sediments evoke developed port infrastructure during the Phoenician and Persian periods, high-resolution reconstruction of the northern harbour's Iron Age history is problematic given repeated dredging practices during the Roman and Byzantine periods. (4) Fine-grained silts and sands in the northern harbour are coeval with advanced Roman engineering works, significantly deforming the coastal landscape. Bio- and lithostratigraphical data attest a leaky lagoon type environment, indicative of a well-protected port. (5) The technological apogee of Sidon's northern harbour is recorded during the late Roman and Byzantine periods, translated stratigraphically by a plastic clays unit and brackish lagoon fauna. (6) A final semi-abandonment phase, comprising coarse sand facies, concurs silting up and a 100–150 m progradation of the port coastline after the seventh century AD. We advance three hypotheses to explain these stratigraphic data, namely cultural, tectonic and tsunamogenic. Finally, our results are compared and contrasted with research undertaken in Sidon's sister harbour, Tyre.     

The Port‐Vendres 4 Shipwreck Cargo: evidence of the Roman wine trade in the western Mediterranean

The Port‐Vendres 4 shipwreck is evidence of coastal export trade between Hispania Citerior and Narbonne in 40/30 BC. The cargo is made up of a particular assemblage of Roman wine amphoras (Pascual 1, Dressel 1B and Lamboglia 2) destined for Gallic markets. Archaeological and archaeometric analyses conducted on a selection of the amphoras allowed the provenance of the cargo to be identified as Hispania Citerior and the central‐southern Tyrrhenian coast of Italy. Iluro and/or Baetulo are proposed as the ports of departure, enabling the reconstruction of the trade route and the historical and economic significance of this shipwreck.     

THE USE OF TRACE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF ENTRAPPED SLAG INCLUSIONS TO ESTABLISH ORE – BAR IRON LINKS: EXAMPLES FROM TWO GALLO‐ROMAN IRON‐MAKING SITES IN FRANCE (LES MARTYS,MONTAGNE NOIRE,AND LES FERRYS,LOIRET)*

Knowledge of the iron trade in ancient times rests on determining the source of the objects recovered during archaeological excavations. Unfortunately, attributing the origin is not always possible using archaeological tools alone. Trace element data of the ore and the archaeological material (reduction and reheating slags, entrapped slag inclusions from the bloom, bar iron and iron blades) from two Gallo‐Roman iron‐making centres, Les Martys (Montagne Noire) and Les Ferrys (Loiret), were determined using ICP–AES/MS and LA–ICP–MS. The results highlight a continuity of composition that makes it possible to establish a link between the initial ore and the semi‐finished iron products.     

THE COMPLEMENTARY USE OF NEUTRONS AND X‐RAYS FOR THE NON‐DESTRUCTIVE INVESTIGATION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL OBJECTS FROM SWISS COLLECTIONS*

This paper shows the possibilities offered by the combined use of non‐destructive neutron and X‐ray beams in archaeological research on metallic finds. The following five artefacts from Swiss excavations were submitted to investigation, each with dedicated aims: a Roman sword, a Roman dagger, an Iron Age bucket, Iron Age spearheads and a Roman finger ring. The images obtained with both methods—neutrons and X‐rays—are discussed in length in this paper. The investigations took place at the Paul Scherrer Institute and the archaeologists who studied the objects come from the Universities of Lausanne and Zurich.     

Cranial Variation and Biodistance in Three Imperial Roman Cemeteries

Ancient Roman populations are expected to exhibit considerable biological variation because of extensive trade networks and migration patterns throughout Europe and the circum‐Mediterranean. The purpose of this research is to examine regional biological variation in Italy during imperial Roman times (1st to 3rd centuries ad ) using three samples exhibiting distinctive class and economic systems. The individuals buried at Isola Sacra and Velia represent middle‐class tradesmen and merchants from coastal port populations from Central and Southern Italy, respectively, while the individuals from Castel Malnome represent an inland population near Rome of freed slaves and other lower‐class individuals involved in heavy labour associated with salt production. Data were recorded from 25 three‐dimensional cranial coordinate landmarks and analysed using Procrustes superimposition and associated multivariate statistics in MorphoJ. Procrustes analysis of variance statistics were unable to detect any significant group differences for centroid size (p  = 0.595), but did detect differences in shape (p  = 0.0154), suggesting some variation between the three samples. Canonical variates analyses based on Procrustes distance values suitable for small sample sizes indicated that while Castel Malnome was not significantly different from either of the coastal sites (Isola Sacra, p  = 0.2071 and Velia, p  = 0.8015), Isola Sacra and Velia were significantly different (p  = 0.0119). The similarity of Castel Malnome to the other sites may reflect inherent heterogeneity in the sample, as it represents a group of freed slaves likely originating from various geographic locations. The separation of the two coastal sites is not unexpected, as Velia's location was influenced by an influx of Greek populations in the southern Italian Peninsula. This work supports previous studies using traditional craniometrics and dental metrics showing group similarity across the Italian Peninsula and a separation between more northern and southern groups. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A NEW SETTING FOR THE NORTHERN BORDER OF THE VENETI: METALLIC FINDS FROM THE VENETIC SITE OF MONTE CALVARIO,AURONZO DI CADORE*

In 2000 several bronze and lead objects were discovered at the Venetic‐Roman site (200 bc –ad 200) of Monte Calvario di Auronzo, in the Italian eastern Alps. They were mostly finished artefacts plus semi‐worked products. Analysis included SEM–EDS, EMPA, XRPD, TMS and AMS spectrometry. The compositional results of the finished artefacts suggest that the choice of the alloy had been made according to the decorative techniques to be used. A semi‐worked high‐leaded bronze object indicates the existence of a metallurgical production of cast artefacts at the site. TMS analyses of a lead ingot exclude local provenance, proving the existence of important trade routes.     

SONGS OF A WAYFARING LAD

Summary. Trade languages are an indispensable mechanism of communication and acculturation in direct and long term trade relationships. In such cases, the aim of this paper is to suggest that Lusitanian, the old Indoeuropean language spoken in West Iberia, arrived in this way from the Atlantic region in the Late Bronze Age, together with technical improvements and a new ideology that deeply influenced the local population, which preserved these cultural features unchanged until the Roman conquest.