THE TIME OF POLITICS,THE POLITICS OF TIME,AND POLITICIZED TIME: AN INTRODUCTION TO CHRONOPOLITICS

Time is so deeply interwoven with all aspects of politics that its centrality to the political is frequently overlooked. For one, politics has its own times and rhythms. Secondly, time can be an object and an instrument of politics. Thirdly, temporal attributes are used not only to differentiate basic political principles but also to legitimize or delegitimize politics. Finally, politics aims at realizing futures in the present or preventing them from materializing. Consequently, the relationship between politics and time encompasses a broad spectrum of phenomena and processes that cry out for historicization. In our introduction to this History and Theory theme issue on chronopolitics, we argue that the concept of chronopolitics makes it possible to do this and, in the process, to move the operation of rethinking historical temporalities from the periphery toward the center of historiographical attention as well as to engage in a dialogue with scholars from a wide range of disciplines. To this end, we propose a broad concept of chronopolitics by discussing existing definitions, by distinguishing between three central dimensions of chronopolitics (the time of politics, the politics of time, and politicized time), and by systematizing possible approaches to studying chronopolitics.     

MEGA‐IRRIGATION AND NEOLIBERALISM IN POSTCOLONIAL STATES: EVOLUTION AND CRISIS IN THE GHARB PLAIN,MOROCCO

This article explores the development, evolution and impacts of large‐scale irrigation schemes in the formation of the postcolonial state of Morocco and in more recent neoliberal decades. In particular, the article focuses on the Gharb Plain in the Sebou River basin, which was targeted by huge investments to become the core region for national development. In this area, three stages of development – colonial, early independent, and the aggressive politique des grandes barrages post‐1970 – have created two clearly different and successive landscapes. The traditional landscape has been overlain, and largely obliterated, by colonial and postcolonial governmental landscapes, reflected through different spatial, economic, cultural, and political patterns over time. In the present, a fourth stage of neoliberal development is occurring in the landscape, in which diffused poverty and ecosystem collapse coincide with greater concentrated wealth and the building of technological infrastructures. The article aims to complement critical studies on neoliberal environments, by focusing in particular on the manipulation, dispossession and commodification of water and land resources in irrigated agriculture in Morocco. These emerging rationalities are closely related to the changing policies of the contemporary Moroccan state.     

THE LOGIC OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF RURAL POLITICS: POLITICAL DISCOURSES ON RURALITY IN NORWAY

Two competing discourses emerge from a careful reading of parliamentary debates in Norway on rural development. One regards rural values as intrinsic, while the other regards the rural as an actor in a play about economic growth. The 'growth' discourse has economic growth as its nodal point and fo-cuses on the freedom of an individual to establish a business wherever he or she wishes, and to migrate to any preferred destination. The 'intrinsic value' discourse places the value of rural settlements and cultures as its nodal point and focuses on allegedly forced migration, a nature-based economy, and local freedom of action. During the neoliberal period, starting about 1980 the strength of the intrinsic value discourse has been increasingly displaced by the growth discourse. The latter seems to match general social changes such as neoliberalism and globalization more than the former. However, analysing the fight between these two discourses is not exhaustive. A broader analytic perspective is needed if we want to understand the logic of how the meaning of rurality comes about. The meaning of rurality in Norwegian politics is made through the way the competing discourses link up to 'nondiscursive' topics that originate and evolve outside the discourses on Norwegian rural politics. We claim that topics which include economic safety and national identity/nation-state are more or less fundamental to understanding the logic of the production of the concrete discourses of rurality in Norwegian politics. We provide evidence that rural change is contingent not only on the meaning-making process in parliamentary debates, but on the way truth claims made by politicians are linked to general national and global issues.     

THE EUROPEANIZATION OF REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT: LOCAL STRATEGIES AND EUROPEAN SPATIAL VISIONS IN NORTHERN FINLAND

By exploring the Europeanization of current practices of regional spatial planning, this article sets out to demonstrate the evolution of the European integration project. Specifically, by creating spaces of engagement to which the local and regional actors are “forced” to adapt, the emergence of European spatial planning has made planning practices at the regional level more complex and complicated. As such, the present study contributes to the current understandings of Europeanization by exploring the European integration process through the geographical conceptualizations of space and scale. These conceptualizations are used to illustrate the multidimensionality, complexity and subtlety of the geographies of Europeanization. The empirical investigations show that regional and local spatial policies are strongly engaged – both explicitly through the “technicalities” and implicitly through the “mentalities”– to the spaces of Europeanization. The engagement affects the effectiveness of sub‐regional spatial planning by promoting mismatches between the strategic frameworks and the material practices of the policy. Overall, the article illustrates that the geographies of Europeanization are continuous processes, which take place – often unrecognizably – in manifold discursive and material practices in various geographical contexts.     

政府空间治理与地方产业发展响应——以重庆市电子信息产业为例

政府空间治理对地方发展具有深刻影响。西方学界在解释国家治理时有三个重要学说:非马克思主义理论、马克思主义理论和福柯学说,但并不能完全解释我国的政府治理结构。中国治理结构包含中央政府和地方政府等多个层次,各层次的行为能力和权力空间有所不同。改革开放以来,中央政府允许地方政府通过调节财税杠杆、土地、劳动力等要素进行地方治理模式创新。同时,地方政府积极争取成为由中央政府批准的特殊经济区,对本地制度环境进行改革和创新,以促进地方产业发展。本文以重庆市为例,结合6次深入调研,探讨政府如何通过财税、土地等多项改革,提升空间治理能力,创造差异化治理环境,以带动地方产业发展的积极响应。     

FLORAL HAZARDS: NOOTKA LUPIN IN ICELAND AND THE COMPLEX POLITICS OF INVASIVE LIFE

Once established in new spaces, exotic plants not only impact the “native” biota, but also affect environmental politics in often complex ways. This article looks into one instance of such politics: that of the Nootka lupin (Lupinus nootkatensis), a leguminous plant of North American origin. Imported to Iceland in 1945 to stem soil degradation and recover vegetation, it soon became firmly established in Icelandic landscapes. Its spreading was actively assisted by human actors as part of fulfilling a moral duty to heal a land scarred by unsustainable past land use practices. Changing perspectives in environmental management have brought about a radical reversal in the lupin's status. It is now seen by many as a “floral hazard”, and has been declared an “invasive alien species” by the Ministry for the Environment. New lines of defence are being established to curb its spread into the deserts of the central highlands. A polarized debate has ensued about the politics of invasive life. Increased research by natural scientists has not led to any resolution. It is argued that such seemingly intractable controversies cannot be resolved unless close attention is paid to the historical construction of values and moralities underwriting the production of the discursive communities involved. Conditions of radical uncertainty with the advent of the Anthropocene further complicate the politics of invasive life.     

关中平原历史地名演变中的文化政治格局——基于批判地名学的研究

基于GIS技术，分析从夏到明清，关中平原历史地名空间格局和命名方式的演变规律。从景观表征和布尔迪厄符号权利视角，借鉴批判地名学研究理论，揭示关中平原历史地名空间格局和命名方式演变过程中的文化政治格局。研究发现：①作为关中平原历史地名空间置换的高密度区域，以西安—咸阳为核心的政治中心区，以及以潼关、陈仓（今宝鸡）为核心的军事中心区构成了政治权利空间斗争的中心；而零星分布于外围的自然景观类地名集中区则体现出其作为政治权利空间斗争边缘区的历史稳定性。②统治阶层和群众围绕宫殿陵寝、官宦氏族、人物姓氏、意愿祈福及祭祀庙宇类地名展开命名博弈，各阶层均希望借助地名这一社会文化符号表达“自我”价值和愿望。③关中平原历史地名具有鲜明的时代特征，地名的命名与变更整体上呈现出去阶层意识形态、关注民生文化的特征。     

城市群作为国家战略:效率与公平的双赢

改革开放以来我国的区域战略和城镇化战略是根据不同的目的和需要而提出的,二者之间并没有建立内在有机的联系。以"科学发展观"和"五个统筹"思想为指导,以效率与公平的双赢为原则,提出了以大城市群为依托,将这两大战略有机结合起来作为国家战略的意义与构想。     

STOMACHING CHANGE: FINNS,FOOD, AND BOUNDARIES IN THE EUROPEAN UNION

The relationship between boundaries, national identity, and food in the European Union is examined empirically in relation to social trust, banal nationalism, and scale. 212 articles published in 2002 in Finland's leading newspaper are examined as deep texts, addressing five juxtapositions: openness/closure; exports/imports; collectives/individuals; fear/opportunity; and defence/promotion. These articles, about food safety and changes in manufacturing and retail, reveal a concern over Finland's “national interest”; the fluidity of the sense of safety; a strong belief in the superiority of “Finnish ways”; and a need to defend “Finnishness” locally and nationally against globalization. The results show that perceptions of trustworthiness and shifting loyalties steer people's behaviour in a way that affects supranational, national, and regional entities. The study confirms the value of examining quotidian elements in the geographical study of boundaries and social trust. The results highlight the importance of considering the reproduction of nations in the geographical assessment of nationalism.     

THE PAST IS EVIL/EVIL IS PAST: ON RETROSPECTIVE POLITICS,PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY,AND TEMPORAL MANICHAEISM

One of the most remarkable phenomena in current international politics is the increasing attention paid to “historical injustice.” Opinions on this phenomenon strongly differ. For some it stands for a new and noble type of politics based on raised moral standards and helping the cause of peace and democracy. Others are more critical and claim that retrospective politics comes at the cost of present‐ or future‐oriented politics and tends to be anti‐utopian. The warnings about the perils of a retrospective politics outweighing politics directed at contemporary injustices, or strivings for a more just future, should be taken seriously. Yet the alternative of a politics disregarding all historical injustice is not desirable either. We should refuse to choose between restitution for historical injustices and struggle for justice in the present or the future. Rather, we should look for types of retrospective politics that do not oppose but complement or reinforce the emancipatory and utopian elements in present‐ and future‐directed politics. I argue that retrospective politics can indeed have negative effects. Most notably it can lead to a “temporal Manichaeism” that not only posits that the past is evil, but also tends to treat evil as anachronistic or as belonging to the past. Yet I claim that ethical Manichaeism and anti‐utopianism and are not inherent features of all retrospective politics but rather result from an underlying philosophy of history that treats the relation between past, present, and future in antinomic terms and prevents us from understanding “transtemporal” injustices and responsibilities. In order to pinpoint the problem of certain types of retrospective politics and point toward some alternatives, I start out from a criticism formulated by the German philosopher Odo Marquard and originally directed primarily at progressivist philosophies of history.     

旅游地流动摊贩的空间生存状态及其影响机制

流动摊贩的空间治理成效关系着目的地的可持续发展。本文建立了关于弱势群体空间政治中“不得其所”与“安适其位”的理论分析框架，并应用于阳朔西街的流动摊贩空间生存状态的案例分析中。发现：①受新自由主义思想主导下的城市管理模式影响，阳朔西街的流动摊贩被政策法规在正式制度层面认定为“不得其所”，但其在旅游经营活动中却受到其他空间使用者的欢迎，在非正式制度层面是“安适其位”；②西街流动摊贩的空间生存状态具有“不得其所”与“安适其位”的双重性，由此也塑造出流动摊贩在阳朔西街时空嵌入的空间结构；③内部群体特征（灵活流动性、规范化提升）与外部社会文化情景（和谐稳定的社会话语、旅游场域的特殊性）两个方面因素不仅有效消解了正式制度层面所形塑出的“不得其所”空间规范，同时也强化了非正式制度层面与空间结构上西街流动摊贩的“安适其位”。     

NARRATORS OF THE ARCTIC: IMAGES AND MOVEMENTS IN NORTHLAND NARRATIVES

While the use of public policy to construct a Canadian identity has been established in the literature, what is less well understood is whether national identity, once established, might shape Canadians' feelings about these same public policies. This article examines the extent to which citizens' national identities influence their pride in Canada's social security system, and how this relationship may be changing over time. Using data from the International Social Science Programme's 1995 and 2003 National Identity Modules, the article argues that citizens' national identities help explain the contours of social security attitudes in Canada, and that this relationship persists despite significant policy change in the field. Additionally, the paper suggests that political actors may successfully increase public support for their social security policies by “framing” them in ways that appeal to citizens' definitions of Canada.     

城镇化背景下村落神圣空间政治性的建构——以广州A村宗祠为例

文章以广州某古村落的改造为例,关注宗祠的神圣性建构以及其面对快速的现代化和城市化等世俗力量时的政治响应。通过微观研究,发现:1宗祠政治性来源于其服务村民的世俗功能;2在宗祠受到外界世俗力量的侵占时,村民通过运用特定时空条件来施行"避让但不逃离"的巧妙战术进行抵抗,从而实现自身权力的宣示和表达。本文旨在从日常生活和空间政治性的角度重新认识处于快速城市化进程中的中国乡村神圣空间的政治建构,为中国乡村和城镇化研究提供有益的研究视角。     

‘IT IS MY HOME. I WILL DIE HERE’: TOURISM DEVELOPMENT AND THE POLITICS OF PLACE IN LIJIANG,CHINA

Although “home” is an established topic in the literature, what home means for an in situ, non‐travelling population that nevertheless is confronted by the influx of great numbers of tourists and migrants is an important question that has not been widely researched. This article examines the construction and practice of home in a highly mobile world, in the case of Lijiang Ancient Town, a World Heritage site in Yunnan, China. Situating Lijiang in the context of China's emerging consumer society, this article has two objectives. First, I will sketch a conceptual framework within which to address the construction of home in relation to mobility, displacement and socioeconomic changes. The second objective is to examine the multiple ways in which Lijiang's town residents dwell in displacement. Even as Lijiang ancient town largely falls into the hands of migrant businesspersons, town residents employ spatial strategies to maintain a public–private boundary, reconcile themselves to living under the same roof with tourists, or forsake their homes for economic benefit. Hence, this article contributes to the geographies of everyday life by illustrating individuals' multiple forms of strategic rationalization in handling socio‐spatial transformation.     

ENGINEERING SPATIAL FIXES: RELATIONAL SPATIAL PRACTICES,STRATEGIC‐TOPOLOGICAL APPROACH AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF A FINNISH SCIENCE‐TECHNOLOGY DISTRICT

It can be argued that the relational approach, and especially the so‐called relational economic geography, would benefit from deeper engagement with the practical and strategic dimensions of spatial relations. The article proposes a notion of engineering spatial fix as a way to conceptualize these dimensions. The idea is to widen the conceptual sphere of relationality from spontaneous ties or abstract networked power effects towards relational spatial practices. Theoretically, the article aims to bridge the strategic‐relational and the network‐topological approaches through a stylized meso‐level practice‐oriented approach. It is suggested that in economic geography, relations can be grasped through two basic perspectives: relations as analytical lenses and relations as spatial practices. The article proposes that the relational spatial practices can be divided into two dimensions: topological and strategic. The article presents a case study of a science‐technology district of Turku in 1985–2001, which fleshes out the theoretical elaborations. In the process, the relational concept of synergy is utilized as a context‐specific strategic resource as the district evolves from an initial separate building to a distinct and materialized geographical structure.     

地方传奇、集体记忆与国家认同——以黄埔军校旧址及其参观者为中心的研究

文章在探讨地方、地方传奇、集体记忆、国家认同等概念的基础上,梳理了西方学者从地理学视角对国家认同的相关研究。用参与式观察、文本分析等方法,以黄埔军校旧址及其游客为研究对象,探讨了地方、地方传奇与游客的集体记忆与国家认同的关系,研究表明,地方及地方传奇唤起了游客的集体记忆,增强了爱国情感。而这种爱国情感正是国家认同的一部分。研究尝试把地方传奇(placemyth)作为概念引入记忆地理研究领域,作为对该领域"传奇"(myth)这一概念的拓展,以期对人文地理学研究内容的丰富、文化地理研究的发展有所裨益。     

EMBEDDED AND DISEMBEDDED PRACTICE IN THE FIRM–PLACE NEXUS: A STUDY OF TWO WORLD‐LEADING MANUFACTURERS OF SKI EQUIPMENT IN THE LILLEHAMMER SKI CLUSTER

Studies of agglomerations and clusters in economic geography anticipate strong interdependency between firms and places. However, despite the extensive literature, we lack a coherent micro‐theoretical foundation. The relationship between the rationales and practices of firms remains somewhat unspecified. In this article, we analyse the diversity of rationales and practices in a firm–place nexus. Possible rationales for firm practice are outlined, examining the assumptions of three, main theoretical perspectives in economic geography. This microeconomic approach is applied through an analysis of the two key firms in the Lillehammer skiing industry cluster in Norway. The study contributes to a more nuanced understanding of how the agency of firms influence and are influenced by co‐location.     

治理模式分异对旅游地发展的影响机制研究——阳朔遇龙河景区个案分析

如何实现有效治理是旅游目的地可持续发展中的重要议题。以阳朔遇龙河景区为个案,归纳其治理模式空间分异的类型与特征,解读不同模式对旅游发展的影响效应,发现：①村企共治模式中,各治理主体形成互助依赖的伙伴关系,资本互补、信任互惠、层级协同、信息对称、相互监督,能够兼顾效益、秩序与公平,游客满意度最高,呈现良性可持续发展态势;②社区主导模式中,治理主体权力失衡、信息不对称、短期工具理性、监管机制难以发挥持续实效,导致旅游秩序最差,游客满意度最低,不利于长远可持续发展;③政府主导模式中,政府公司治理能力不足,缺乏有效激励机制,导致商业效益较差,未能实现资源最优配置。     

冲突、协商与建构:西方死亡景观研究的文化地理学进展与启示

死亡景观是当前西方社会文化地理学研究的一个重要领域。1990年代以来,在全球对人口老龄化及终极关怀关注持续升温的背景下,以死亡为主题的研究成果大量涌现。本文在对西方地理学者关于死亡研究回顾的基础上,对死亡景观这一核心概念进行了辨析,梳理当前文化地理视角下死亡景观研究的三大主题:神圣性构建与世俗化响应、传统文化与现代性冲突与协商以及情感空间的建构。研究发现国外学者倾向于将死亡景观放置在广阔的社会经济与文化网络中进行分析,并与现代性、文化身份、情感体验与日常生活实践等视角相结合,促进了文化地理视角下死亡景观研究的蓬勃发展。期冀本研究回顾对国内的死亡景观研究提供了新的理论视角与实践层面的思考。     

HUMAN NATURE,THE ENVIRONMENT,AND BEHAVIOUR: EXPLAINING THE SCOPE AND GEOGRAPHICAL SCALE OF FINANCIAL DECISION‐MAKING

This article explores two inter‐related themes. One addresses fundamental questions of human nature, arguing that conventional theories of behaviour lack a credible appreciation of the interaction between cognition and context (or what is often termed as the ‘environment’). The second considers decision‐making under risk and uncertainty, focusing upon customary behaviour and the significance or otherwise of conscious deliberation. My argument is intended to be both critical and constructive, exploring the claims of the emerging school of behaviouralism associated with Kahneman and Tversky now sweeping the social sciences. Most importantly, it is argued that economic geography should take more seriously the nature and scope of behaviour recognizing its attributes including related social and cultural aspirations. These ideas are illustrated by a set of recent studies dealing with financial decision‐making and individuals' attitudes towards risk in personal and occupational pension plans. The importance of this project lies in the urgent need to understand the diversity of behaviour of men and women in, and through, the communities in which they live without being reduced to yet another version of environmental determinism. In the final section, implications are drawn for understanding the global financial crisis.