Holocene later stone age hunter-gatherers south of the Limpopo River, Ca. 10,000-2000 B.P.

Encouraged by new, ethnographically grounded interpretations of San rock art, Holocene hunter-gatherer research south of the Limpopo has undergone a partial paradigm shift over the last decade, away from ecological issues and in favor of questions of social organization and ideology. Earlier models relating changes in regional demography to environmental shifts now need revision, as do long-standing studies of seasonal mobility. New research emphasizes instead identification of exchange and alliance networks and patterns of seasonal aggregation and dispersal. However, several of the assumptions of these models remain untested, while dating problems make it difficult to integrate rock art with other components of the archaeological record. Critical use of a more diverse set of ethnographic data, from both within and beyond the Kalahari, is also needed. These points are emphasized in discussing evidence for social and economic intensification between 5000 and 2000 B.P. in several areas of the subcontinent (KwaZulu-Natal, the southern, eastern, and far western Cape).     

The First Herders at the Cape of Good Hope

It is generally accepted that the earliest livestock and pottery were brought to the southern tip of Africa by Khoi-speaking herders from northern Botswana around 2000 years ago. The archaeological remains of that age, however, show no sign of such a migration. Rather, some evidence points to the arrival of the Khoi in the southwestern Cape toward the end of the first millennium AD. The earliest livestock and pottery, it is argued, probably reached the Cape of Good Hope some 2000 years ago by a process of diffusion. The implications of this model for the current debates on the transition from hunting to herding in southern Africa are discussed.     

Interregional Interaction in Southern Africa: Zhizo and Leopard's Kopje Relations in Northern South Africa, Southwestern Zimbabwe, and Eastern Botswana, AD 1000 to 1200

The dominant model of relations between Zhizo- and Leopard's Kopje-ceramic using groups in northern South Africa, southwestern Zimbabwe, and eastern Botswana between AD 1000 and 1300 has been one of hostile invasion by Leopard's Kopje groups, who are thought to have forced Zhizo groups into eastern Botswana (Huffman, 1978, 1986a, 1996). Leopard's Kopje groups are thereupon thought to have set about the process of nascent state formation in the absence of any significant contact, other than violence or intermittent intermarriage (Denbow, 1982, 1983, 1986; Huffman, 1986a, 1996), with their Zhizo (i.e., Toutswe) neighbors to the west. More recently, Denbow (1990) has modified his position to include trade in exotic goods as a regular feature of Leopard's Kopje–Zhizo relations. Radiocarbon and ceramic data from the Iron Age site Leokwe Hill, in combination with the available ceramic data and a reanalysis of the ceramics from the site Schroda, indicate that current interpretations of the relations between Zhizo and Leopard's Kopje groups need to be reconsidered. New hypotheses are presented that posit that the nature and intensity of interaction between these groups was more far-reaching than is currently thought.Le modéle dominant des relations entre les groupes qui ont utilisés les ceramiques Zhizo et ceux qui ont utilisés celles de Leopard's Kopje dans le nord de l'Afrique du Sud, sud-est du Zimbabwe et l'est du Botswana entre AD 1000 et 1300, a été l'invasion hostile par les groupes de Leopard's Kopje, qui, l'on pense avoir forcé les groupes Zhizo dans l'est du Botswana (Huffman, 1978, 1986a, 1996). Les groupes de Leopard's Kopje sont pensés avoir établi le procédée de l'état de formation (nascent) en l'absence de tous contacts significatifis, autre que la violence ou des mariages consanguins intermittents (Denbow, 1982, 1983, 1986; Huffman, 1986a, 1996), avec leur Zhizo (c.à.d. Toutwse) voisins à l'ouest. Récemment, Denbow (1990) a modifié sa position pour inclure le commerce des produits exotics comme une caractéristique réguliere des relations entre Leopard's Kopje et Zhizo. Le radiocarbonne et les données en céramique du site de l'âge de fer Leokwe Hill, en combinaison avec les données de céramiques disponibles et une ré-analyse des céramiques du site Schroda, indiquent que les interprétations des relations entre Zhizo et les groupes de Leopard's Kopje doivent être reconsidêrées. Des nouvelles hypothéses sont présentées qui proposent que la nature et l'intensité des interactions entre ses groupes étaient d'ptune portée bien plus grande que nous le pensons actuellement.Sashi-Limpopo Archaeological Project     

Clear the Mind of Pre-conceived Ideas and Get Your Hands Dirty! An Approach to Field-based Courses: The SLUSE-southern Africa Experience

This paper explores an approach to problem-oriented, interdisciplinary field-based courses devised by university consortia in southern Africa and Denmark. The SLUSE (Sustainable Land Use and Natural Resource Management) model has been applied on six three-week field courses within southern Africa and trained over 200 students. Student groups composed of individuals from different academic disciplines that investigated problems specifically devised to integrate social and natural science approaches set the stage for an interdisciplinary approach. The field locations are in rural areas that have a legacy of marginalization, poverty and reliance on natural resources for at least part of their livelihoods thus allowing for environmental and natural resource issues to be investigated. Course evaluations show that students feel they gain invaluable exposure to the innovative field-based learning environment created by the SLUSE approach. The main benefit perceived by hosting local communities was an increase in their self-esteem and to harness the knowledge and experience gained from the courses to further enrich their own communities. On reflection, the students value the opportunity to work cross-culturally, and trying new techniques on ‘real’ issues. To many students the personal challenges they face adjusting to the demands of the field course are as important as the academic outputs.     

Possible evidence of bone tool shaping by Swartkrans early hominids

Ever since Dart (J. Phys. Anthrop. 7 (1949) 1) interpreted certain bones from Makapansgat as tools, scientific consensus has fluctuated as to whether some bone objects from early hominid sites should be interpreted as artefacts, or the result of non-human taphonomic processes, which are known to produce pseudo-bone tools morphologically similar to human modified or used artefacts. Here we present possible evidence of bone tool shaping from Swartkrans (Members 1–3; ca. 1.8–1.0 Mya). Four horncores and the proximal end of an ulna used as tools in digging activities also have facets covered by parallel spindle-shaped striations characteristic of grinding. Identification of these traces as possibly resulting from deliberate shaping or re-sharpening of the bone tools is based on the characterisation of the use-wear pattern and other taphonomic modifications observed on the Swartkrans bone tools. This interpretation is also supported by the study of the remainder of the horncores from Swartkrans, horncores from other southern African Plio-Pleistocene sites (Sterkfontein, Makapansgat, Gondolin), modern horncores affected by pre- and post-mortem modification, ethnographic, LSA, African Iron Age and experimental bone tools shaped by grinding. These data suggest that early hominids had the cognitive ability to modify the functional area of bone implements to achieve optimal efficiency.     

Prehistoric exchange and interaction in southeastern southern africa: Marine shells and ostrich eggshell

The spatiotemporal distribution of seashells and ostrich eggshell in the Later Stone Age of southeastern southern Africa is used to infer several areas of social interaction. The inferred patterns are supported by comparisons with preferences for lithic raw materials and the distribution of bifacial stone arrows. Plusiers zones de l'interaction sociale sont déduites des distributions chronologiques et spatiales de la coquillage et de la coquille de'autruche de l'Age de la Pierre Récent au sud- est de l'Afrique australe. Ces distributions sont soutenues des préférences pour des matières premières lithiques et de la distribution des flèches bifaciales de la pierre. Provincial names and boundaries are as given on May 1, 1994     

粮食安全:中国的还是全球的?——基于海外新中国粮食安全的研究视域

新中国成立以来,海外对新中国粮食安全研究的视域随着形势的变化而变化。进入20世纪90年代中期以来,随着中国经济的飞速发展和人口增长惯性的推动,在中国日益融入经济全球化的历史条件下,海外学者对中国粮食安全研究的视域从关注中国自身的粮食安全转移到了关注中国粮食安全与全球性粮食安全的关联,中国粮食安全被置于全球粮食安全的分析框架内,成为全球粮食安全的重要组成部分。     

Civil society and public–private partnerships: case study of the Agri-FoodBank in South Africa

In recent decades, civil society organizations (CSOs) have joined public–private partnerships (PPPs) to reduce poverty and promote local development. In what follows, I analyze the development of the Agri-FoodBank (AFB) CSO in South Africa in order to critically examine PPPs. As part of the FoodBank South Africa (FBSA) network of food banks, the AFB has emerged to reduce rural and urban food insecurities. Building on the national system of food banks, the AFB aims to train small-scale rural farmers to sell their crops to the food bank’s network of local food organizations which then feed the urban poor. In the case of the AFB, findings suggest that the PPP emerged as a mutually beneficial collaboration between the state and FBSA, as the state needed political power and FBSA needed money. However, for this PPP to form, FBSA completely transformed its mission and structure to fit the state’s preference for rural development projects. Thus, although the AFB formed to empower FBSA, data findings indicate that the AFB has increased state control over FBSA. In this way, PPPs need to be understood within the context of local state-civil society relations, as methods of state control reflect South Africa’s unique version of neoliberalism.     

Evidence for Interaction from Recent Hunter-Gatherer Sites in the Caledon Valley

Evidence for contact between hunter-gatherers and agropastoralists from excavated sites in a well-documented frontier zone in the eastern Free State, South Africa, reveals varied intensities of interaction. These interactions range from clientship to relative autonomy. Comparison between recent (eighteenth- to early twentieth-century) hunter-gatherer occupations of rock shelters in the Caledon Valley also suggests that a variety of social relationships between hunter-gatherers and farmers, known ethnographically, occurred simultaneously.