Back from burn out: are experimentally charred grapevine pips too distorted to be characterized using morphometrics?

This article examines the impact of charring on the possibility to characterize grape pips, at compartment (wild versus domesticated) and cultivar level, using morphometrics. Two morphometric methods have been used, one based on linear measurements (traditional morphometrics) and one on elliptic Fourier transforms (EFT; morphogeometrics). Charring experiments were performed using a laboratory muffle furnace and various charring conditions. Despite the strong impact of heating, results showed that wild and domesticated Vitis seeds can be reliably discriminated using both traditional morphometrics and morphogeometrics, even when charring has been done at high temperature (450 °C). The characterization of charred pips at cultivar level using EFT is very powerful when the seeds are charred at 250 °C, but the risk of misclassification is, as expected, higher at 450 °C. Results suggest that the characterization at cultivar level should only be attempted with large assemblages of well preserved archaeological pips, and only after a first classification at compartment level. Our approach was applied on a case study of two assemblages of waterlogged and well preserved charred pips from the archaeological site of Lattara. The results are consistent both between the two morphometric methods and between waterlogged and charred remains.     

Archaeological and Historical Materials as a Means to Explore Finnish Crop History

ABSTRACT

In Northern Europe, barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) has been cultivated for almost 6000 years. Thus far, 150-year-old grains from historical collections have been used to investigate the distribution of barley diversity and how the species has spread across the region. Genetic studies of archaeobotanical material from agrarian sites could potentially clarify earlier migration patterns and cast further light on the origin of barley landraces. In this study, we aimed to evaluate different archaeological and historical materials with respect to DNA content, and to explore connections between Late Iron Age and medieval barley populations and historical samples of barley landraces in north-west Europe. The material analysed consisted of archaeological samples of charred barley grains from four sites in southern Finland, and historical material, with 33 samples obtained from two herbaria and the seed collections of the Swedish museum of cultural history.

The DNA concentrations obtained from charred archaeological barley remains were too low for successful KASP genotyping confirming previously reported difficulties in obtaining aDNA from charred remains. Historical samples from herbaria and seed collection confirmed previously shown strong genetic differentiation between two-row and six-row barley. Six-row barley accessions from northern and southern Finland tended to cluster apart, while no geographical structuring was observed among two-row barley. Genotyping of functional markers revealed that the majority of barley cultivated in Finland in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century was late-flowering under increasing day-length, supporting previous findings from northern European barley.     

Ashes to ashes, charcoal to dust: micromorphological evidence for ash-induced disintegration of charcoal in Early Neolithic (LBK) soil features in Elsloo (The Netherlands)

Charcoal and other forms of charred organic material - an important part of the archaeological record - consist of benzenoids. Such components are unstable in basic or alkaline conditions. Since ashes are alkaline, this means that archaeological charcoal may have been disintegrated and lost if they were buried together with ashes, e.g. as in fireplaces. Ash may also cause clay translocation in decalcified loess because of the disaggregating effect of K⁺ ions in the soil solutions. We investigated the interplay of these two processes, using micromorphological samples from the Early Neolithic site at the Joannes Riviusstraat in Elsloo. Evidence for charcoal disintegration was found in the form of cavities in charcoal fragments, most commonly filled in with thick reddish limpid clay coatings. The combination of cavities and clay coatings are evidence for the disintegration of charcoal under the influence of ash. Ash may also have been instrumental in preserving small bone fragments in these decalcified well-drained loess soils. The evidence of ash-induced charcoal disintegration implies that charcoal preservation in the archaeological record is dependent on (1) whether or not is was buried alongside with ashes, and (2) on various soil characteristics that determine that determine how quickly the ash-derived alkalinity and potassium ions are leached.     

Reconstruction of the Late Glacial and Early Holocene landscape and human presence in Lubrza,Western Poland,on the basis of multidisciplinary analyses

This paper presents the results of a multidisciplinary study that combines archaeological and palaeoenvironmental research to examine the relationship between environment and human activities in Western Poland during the Late Glacial and Early Holocene. The study area lying within the young moraine landscape produced several Late Palaeolithic and Early Mesolithic sites, varied in terms of size and function. Analyses of pollen, plant macro-remains and molluscs accompanied by geomorphological investigations and supported by series of radiocarbon dates have enabled a detailed reconstruction of environment. It has shown that despite climatic fluctuations during the Allerød and Younger Dryas, the studied area provided favourable conditions for hunter-gatherer occupation. The presence of micro- and macroscopic charcoal, charred particles of herbaceous plants and charred mosses in peat deposits of former water bodies evidence various activities carried out by Federmesser and Swiderian groups, for example setting up camp-fires and deliberate burning of the local marsh vegetation. Usewear analyses of flint implements have revealed further traces of diversified human activities undertaken at examined sites. Most importantly, this article focuses on plant-based craft activities undertaken by hunter-gatherers, about which little has hitherto been known.     

Dynamic Response of Saturated Soil - Foundation System Acted upon by Vibration

In this study, the response and behavior of machine foundations resting on dry and saturated sand was investigated experimentally. In order to investigate the response of soil and footing to steady state dynamic loading, a physical model was manufactured to simulate steady state harmonic load at different operating frequencies. Total of 84 physical models were performed. The footing parameters are related to the size of the rectangular footing and depth of embedment. Two sizes of rectangular steel model footing were tested at the surface and at 50 mm depth below model surface. Meanwhile the investigated parameters of the soil condition include dry and saturated sand for two relative densities 30% and 80%. The response of the footing was elaborated by measuring the amplitude of displacement by the vibration meter. The response of the soil to dynamic loading includes measuring the stresses inside the soil using piezoelectric sensors as well as measuring the excess pore water pressure using pore water pressure transducers. It was concluded that the maximum displacement amplitude response of the foundation resting on dry sand models is more than that on the saturated sand by about 5.0–10%. The maximum displacement amplitude of footing is reduced to half when the size of footing is doubled for dry and saturated sand. The final settlement (St) of the foundation increases with increasing the amplitude of dynamic force, operating frequency and degree of saturation. Meanwhile, it is reduced with increasing the relative density of sand, modulus of elasticity, and embedding inside soils. The excess pore water pressure increases with increasing the relative density of the sand, the amplitude of dynamic loading and the operating frequency. In contrast, the rate of dissipation of the excess pore water pressure during dynamic loading is more in the case of loose sand.     

Short-chain n-alkanes (C16–20) in ancient soil are useful molecular markers for prehistoric biomass burning

The incorporation of plant biomass into soil usually leads to long-chain n-alkanes with a relative predominance of odd carbon numbered homologues. Contrastingly, an increase in short-chain even carbon numbered n-alkanes was found in charred biomass with progressing temperatures. We applied lipid analysis to buried ancient topsoils that contained charred organic matter and to corresponding control soils, which were characterized by a lighter color and lower contents of charred materials. Commonly, the proportion of lipid extracts was found to be lower in the ancient soil than in the control samples, which indicated an enhanced degradation of organic matter, e.g., by thermal degradation. All samples displayed a particular pattern of short-chain and even carbon numbered n-alkanes (maximum at n-C₁₆ or n-C₁₈). The ratios CPI (carbon preference index) and ACL (average chain length) for the investigated soil samples matched the ratios found for maize and rye straw charred at 400 °C or 500 °C, respectively. These molecular ratios indicate the presence of charred biomass. The predominance of short-chain and even carbon numbered n-alkanes was a result of thermal degradation of biomass. The degradation products were preserved in ancient soils and could be applied as molecular markers in archaeological or palaeoenvironmental research.     

Tools for Predicting Damage to Archaeological Sites Caused by One-Dimensional Loading

Tools are developed to predict damage to archaeological remains caused by the construction of line infrastructure on soft soil. They are based on numerical modelling and laboratory testing supported by X-ray microcomputed tomographic observations, and micromorphological analyses of thin sections. They have been validated for one-dimensional (1D) loading at two sites in the Netherlands where soil has been placed on top of organic layers rich in ecofacts and overlaying Pleistocene sands.

Numerical prediction of the deformation of soft layers underneath an embankment remains a challenge for geo-technical engineers. Errors on surface settlement prediction reach ±15% of the measured total settlement.

Laboratory observations show that vulnerable artefacts can get crushed when packed loosely in pure assemblies under 1D loading equivalent to less than 5 m of sand. Fragmentation is assimilated to loss of archaeological value as it compromises recovery during sieving. Embedment in a sandy or a very compressible organic matrix has a beneficial effect on the resistance of ecofacts. Embedded ecofacts can resist a load of more than 12 m of sand. Flattening and re-orientation of soft plant remains occur during 1D loading without microscopic damage of tissues.     

Bioturbation and the upward movement of sediment particles and archaeological materials: comments on Bueno et al.

The literature on bioturbation, both from the biological and archaeological points of view, is growing steadily. Available data suggests that ants and termites are responsible for the upward movement of soil/sediment particles and archaeological materials. It is argued that this could be the most parsimonious explanation for the stratigraphic data presented by Bueno et al. (2013), given the size range of displaced materials and the environmental setting, composed of a sandy soil in a savannah region.     

Temperature,compression and fragmentation: an experimental analysis to assess the impact of taphonomic processes on charcoal preservation

This paper explores how mechanical properties of different South Asian tree taxa might influence charred wood fragmentation and the composition of charcoal assemblages retrieved from archaeological contexts. The dataset is composed of selected plant species that were collected in Gujarat (Northern India) in September 2007 as part of the North Gujarat Archaeological Project. The taxa analysed represent the most common wood species found in the arid thorn scrubland formation in South Asia and are among the most abundant identified in Neolithic and Chalcolithic archaeological sites in this area. The specimens have been measured and subsequently charred at three different temperatures, under constant conditions. Afterwards, their resistance to compression has been measured on two planes, parallel and perpendicular to the direction of fibres, using a Hounsfield 5-kN machine. The tests were performed in order to understand the different response to compressive stress of wood that has been subject to a range of thermal degradations. The standardised treatment applied to the samples has permitted the comparison of results and the delineation of simple correlations and divergences among the species analysed. Furthermore, the utilisation of a relatively simple operating protocol easily allows the addition of further data in the future. The applied protocol was specifically designed to answer archaeological questions. Therefore, even though from a material science point of view some of the measurements were not taken according to the prevailing standard procedures, it offers valuable data for anthracological research applied to archaeology in arid zones.     

Interpreting,dating, and reevaluating the botanical assemblage from tell Kedesh: a case study of historical contamination

Botanical assemblage including charred and mineralized macro plant remains were examined from tell Kedesh in the Upper Galilee, Israel. Flotation samples were collected from various contexts within and outside a large Persian-Hellenistic administrative building complex at tell Kedesh, dated to the 5th to the 2nd century BC, based on the archaeological material. Four AMS radiocarbon dates were obtained on plant macro remains recovered from the flotation samples from the complex. The radiocarbon dates range from the 9th century BC to 17th century AD. The discrepancy among the radiocarbon dates obtained from plant remains and those based on archaeological material can be attributed to bioturbation, including the deep burrowing of harvester ants. The study demonstrates the need for direct radiocarbon dating of the charred plant remains generally assumed to be of ancient origin. This research improves the understanding of depositional and postdepositional processes of plant macro remains and explains their mode of arrival, relevant for the sites with a long occupational history by humans and animals.     

郑州大河村遗址仰韶文化“高粱”遗存的再研究

高粱(Sorghum bicolor)是禾本科植物的一个种,是非洲特有的植物并最早在乍得-苏丹地区得以驯化[1]。中国史前时期是否存在高粱一直是一桩疑案。很多争论是基于对古文献中若干文字是否为高粱的诠释,但也有10余处考古遗址确曾报道发现高粱遗存,年代从新石器时代一直延续到唐代[2]     

The 9th century BCE destruction layer at Tell es-Safi/Gath,Israel: integrating macro- and microarchaeology

Destruction events in multi-period sites are valuable marker horizons that represent time-synchronous events across the site and sometimes between sites. Destruction layers often preserve rich finds that provide insights into site use. Here we use both macro- and microarchaeological methods to study a destruction event from the late 9th century at Tell es-Safi/Gath in Israel. A major conflagration at this specific location resulted in the consolidation of parts of the roof construction materials, thus enabling us to differentiate between roof, walls and floor materials. We could reconstruct the events which lead to the formation of an approximately 80 cm thick layer. The base of this layer that overlies the floor surface is a thin charred organic material-rich ash layer. As the clays in this layer were not altered by heat and the ceramics still have preserved residues, we conclude that the ash was produced elsewhere and was redistributed to this location. Ceramics that are associated with burnt roof sediments do not have preserved residues. We also estimate the time that each of the accumulation events might have taken, and conclude that this accumulation occurred over decades. The architecture and artifacts found within and beneath the destruction do not allow us to unequivocally identify the function of this area prior to destruction. We do however identify an unusual bin and associated stone pavement, and a corner rich in artifacts, phytoliths and charred organic material. We also show that a wall was built of fired mud bricks; a most unusual occurrence for this time period in the Levant. This study demonstrates well the usefulness of an integrated macro- and microarchaeological approach to understanding the archaeological record, as well as the benefits of using an on-site laboratory.     

Archaeobotanical inference of Bronze Age land use and land cover in the eastern Mediterranean

Charcoal and charred seeds at five Bronze Age archaeological sites discern ancient land use in the eastern Mediterranean. Seed frequencies of orchard crops, annual cereals and pulses, and wild or weedy plants are used to characterize plant utilization at different archaeological sites on the island of Cyprus, in the Rift Valley of Jordan, and in the Jabbul Plain and along the upper Euphrates River valley in Syria. Seed to charcoal ratios provide proxies to determine the relative usage of dung versus wood for fuel across the ancient Mediterranean landscape. Greater charcoal and lower charred seed values are interpreted to represent a wooded environment, while higher amounts of charred seeds and minimal wood charcoal suggest a much great use of dung as a fuel source. Interestingly, Politiko-Troullia (Cyprus, Cypriot archaeological sites are, by convention, named for the nearest modern village (Politiko), followed by an italicized toponym (Troullia) referring to the plot of land that incorporates the site) has the lowest seed to charcoal ratio, suggesting its residents primarily burned wood and that the landscape surrounding Troullia remained relatively wooded during the Bronze Age. In contrast, villagers at Tell el-Hayyat (Jordan) utilized a mixture of wood and dung, in contrast to Tell Abu en-Ni’aj (Jordan), and especially Umm el-Marra and Tell es-Sweyhat (Syria), where inhabitants relied solely on dung fuel. Comparative analysis and interpretation of seed and charcoal evidence thus illustrates the variety of fuel use strategies necessitated by the dynamic and diverse Bronze Age landscapes of the Eastern Mediterranean.     

Trampling experiments at Cova Gran de Santa Linya,Pre-Pyrenees,Spain: their relevance for archaeological fabrics of the Upper–Middle Paleolithic assemblages

The study of fabrics, that is, the analysis of the orientation and slope of archaeological and sedimentary materials associated with the Middle Palaeolithic/Upper Palaeolithic (MP/UP) transition at Cova Gran shows substantial differences. Archaeological assemblages are characterised by greater isotropy in the fabrics than the sedimentary levels within which they are located, indicating that these differences may be generated by anthropic processes. One of the anthropogenic processes associated with horizontal and vertical displacement of archaeological artefacts is trampling and circulation caused by later occupations. In order to evaluate the effect of movement on materials, we undertook experiments simulating geological and archaeological conditions at Cova Gran. The results show that human trampling does not cause major isotropy in fabrics, but arranges archaeological assemblages towards planar or linear materials according to surface geometry. We were not able to replicate the fabric pattern of materials from the archaeological levels of Cova Gran, suggesting that they must be associated with the activities of human occupation at each level.     

EXPERIMENTS WITH AN OLD CERAMIC BEEHIVE

Ceramic beehives are frequently identified on archaeological sites in Greece and occur in large numbers. Their existence is at odds with the accounts of Roman authors, who disdain the use of clay for beekeeping and praise materials like wicker and wood, which have left no archaeological traces. The reason for the rejection of terracotta hives is unanimously that they are too cold in the winter and too hot in the summer, but temperature experiments with a nineteenth century ceramic beehive in Greece proved them to be within the norms experienced by bees. The results of this research thus indicate different traditions of beekeeping in Roman Greece and Italy and seek to explain why these may have developed.     

Archaeological sedimentology of overbank silt deposits on the floodplain of the Ohio river near Louisville,Kentucky

The surface of the floodplain of the Ohio River about 20km southwest of Louisville, Kentucky, is a series of linear ridges and swales that are subparallel to the channel of the river, which here is relatively straight and flows southward. Numerous prehistoric occupational sites are located on these ridges. The sediments that underlie the ridges, which were examined in four archaeological excavations as deep as 8 m, are predominantly sandy silt and silty fine to very fine sand and appear to be mainly the product of overbank deposition from suspended load. Abundant cultural material and occupational sites dating as early as 10,000 years BP are found in the sediments at depths as great as 6·5 m. The fine sediments of the floodplain are underlain by sand and gravel.The context of the cultural materials and the stratigraphy and morphology of the deposits indicate that the ridged deposits began as linear riverside sand and gravel bars. These were succeeded upward by fine-grained overbank deposits in which the ridged morphology was maintained because the overbank silt and fine sand were deposited as prograding elongate bars at high water. As the floodplain ridge built upward, the sedimentation rate decreased and the sand content of the sediments diminished, and as the river channel occasionally shifted, the ridged deposits were built in successive subparallel sequences.Two archaeological consequences are implicit in this depositional model of orderly growth of the floodplain. First, available archaeological data from floodplain segments along other parts of the river should confirm the model; and second, the model should make it possible to search the floodplains of the Ohio River for stratified sites of any desired age.     

Contribution to the geology of Failaka Island,Kuwait: Evidence from sedimentological and petrographic data from the NE part of the island

Kuwait–Georgian archaeological work at Failaka Island showed the need for geological study. Analysis of sediments related to drinking water-collecting cisterns was performed on a Late Islamic settlement (NE part of the island) in 2018. Field sedimentological, grain size and XRD analysis of the sediment profiles showed that the shallow (about 1 m deep) cone-shaped wells are dug in the loose, porous, cross-stratified calcareous coarse-grained quartz sandstones. Three upper layers of quartz sandstones in the profile have high infiltration rate and provide a rare yet ideal material for water retention. The fourth dense layer below, composed of very fine sand and silt fraction, tends to hinder water movement and forms a relatively impermeable water-resistant surface. Thus, the distribution patterns of clay content, grain sizes and porosity of the well-hosting sediments are favourable for freshwater infiltration and harvesting. An additional petrographic analysis was conducted on different types of rocks discovered on the archaeological site, used as building material and fragments of stone artifacts to identify their origin. It was established that archaeological building material is of local origin, whereas the source rocks for stone artifacts were imported.     

Investigating crop processing using phytolith analysis: the example of rice and millets

The application of crop processing models to macro-botanical assemblages has traditionally been used to interpret past husbandry practices and organisation of labour involved in crop-processing. Phytoliths offer an alternative method of analysis because they are durable in most environments, regardless of whether plant parts are charred, and the identification of plant types and plant parts allows them to be used in much the same way as macro-botanical remains. Indeed macro-remains and phytoliths are complementary datasets for examining the input of plant parts, such as crop-processing waste, into archaeological deposits. We outline crop-processing models in relation to macro-remains and then develop the framework for their application to archaeological phytolith assemblages. Rice and millet processing models are explored in relation to patterns expected in both macro-remains and phytoliths. The utility of these models is demonstrated with archaeological evidence from the site of Mahagara, an early farming site in North-Central India. The results indicate a way to employ phytoliths in archaeology which complements the fragmentary evidence available from plant macroremains.     

THE POTENTIAL OF CARBONIZED GRAIN TO PRESERVE BIOGENIC 87SR/86SR SIGNATURES WITHIN THE BURIAL ENVIRONMENT*

Carbonized grains survive for millennia in many archaeological contexts. Their stable structure raises the possibility that they preserve biogenic strontium isotope signatures. This hypothesis was investigated using short‐term, laboratory experiments with modern grain immersed in Chalk solution. HCl leaching removed > 95% of secondary alteration from charred grain, and isotope ratios close to the starting value were recovered. This could not be achieved with uncharred grains. HCl leaching of archaeological carbonized grains produced comparable levels of decontamination. Although preliminary, these results suggest that strontium isotope analysis of archaeological carbonized grains from calcareous burial contexts could be used to investigate ancient trade and agriculture.     

Botanical,malacological and archaeological zonation of settlement deposits at Gomolava

A 2 × 2 m column was excavated within the large-scale excavation carried out by a Jugoslav team at tell Gomolava, Hrtkovci, Jugoslavia, occupied from Vinc?a (c. 5000 BC) to post-Roman times. The archaeological zonation of the column's material is briefly outlined to provide the background to the detailed palaeobotanical, palynological and malacological study. The results of this study are used to aid the reconstruction of the palaeoenvironment of the tell. They indicate that the earliest agrobotanical zone, in which most of the cultigens were already present, but which is characterized by a very low count of charred seeds, persists throughout the Vinc?a, Baden and most of the Kostolac layers of the tell. A marked increase in charred seeds, without the appearance of new species, occurs in the next zone (Bronze and Iron Age). In zone 3 (Iron Age and Roman), Triticum dicoccum, Triticum aestivum and Lens culinaris attain significant levels.An interesting correlation between an increase in shade-loving snail species (zone B) and increase in building activity in the same level needs to be verified by further similar studies. This level is approximately that of the end of the Vinc?a occupation, but does not precisely correlate with an archaeological transition, suggesting that new building styles may have ante-dated the full development of the Baden cultural group on the site. During the third malaco zone (zone C) most shade loving snail species decrease abruptly to make place for open country species. The spread of these species could have been caused by the partial or total abandonment of the tell. Aquatic snails, which had first appeared in the lowest habitation layers of the tell become rare towards the subsequent bronze and iron age occupation of the tell, indicating that hardly any riverine clay was used for the construction of houses within these periods. The final malaco zone, representing the disturbed iron, roman and medieval periods indicates that again open grassy slopes must have occurred on or around the tell.