WEALTH AND POWER IN THE BRONZE AGE OF THE SOUTH-EAST OF THE IBERIAN PENINSULA: THE FUNERARY RECORD OF CERRO DE LA ENCINA

Summary.   As a result of recent fieldwork undertaken at the archaeological site of Cerro de la Encina, our knowledge of the funerary ritual has increased considerably. The funerary record shows a significant concentration of wealth in burials corresponding to the family groups of the highest social status. Dramatic social differences can also be found in the internal organization of the settlement. The locations of burials within the settlement area, under the floors of dwellings, allow us to establish that the settlement space was closely related to the social identity of the families. The high number of burials with double and triple inhumations, in contrast to other Argaric necropolis, also stands out as an important feature of Cerro de la Encina, suggesting that familial relationships seem to be more marked here than at other Argaric sites. All these data are discussed in relation to the funerary ritual of the Argaric Culture.     

New discoveries in a Nabataean tomb. Burial practices and ‘plant jewellery’ in ancient Hegra (Madâ’in Sâlih,Saudi Arabia)

The excavation of tomb IGN 117 in Madâ’in Sâlih, ancient Hegra, in Saudi Arabia, produced a large amount of bones, objects and materials (leather, fabric, fruit, wood, amorphous organic substances) of the Nabataean‐Roman period (first to early fourth century AD). Two pieces of fabric and leather are of particular interest because they contained pierced dates (Phoenix dactylifera) strung together using date‐palm leaflets. These exceptional discoveries are poorly attested in Near Eastern funerary contexts. Together with other data from Madâ’in Sâlih, the southern Near East and Egypt, this interdisciplinary analysis leads to the reconstruction of part of the funerary practices related to the preservation and preparation of the body that occurred in tomb IGN 117. Finally, the analysis allows the questioning of the symbolic role of plant jewellery and the date palm in a funerary context.     

Cultural Changes in Funeral Rites During the Neolithic in the Northeast of the Iberian Peninsula? The Cave of Pantà de Foix (Barcelona)

During the third millennia bc , there is a change in the funerary patterns of the populations in Catalonia. This novelty usually has been usually related to a change in the economical source of the human groups that become less sedentary as the stockbreeding becomes more important. In the present study, we analyse this change, reflected in the mortuary practices, by the study of diet and health markers such as caries, dental calculus or enamel hypoplasias and of biological affinities based on dental non‐metric traits. It has been included a total amount of 317 permanent teeth from Cova del Pantà de Foix sites, a sepulchral cave found at the south‐west of the city of Barcelona and dates from the third millennia bc . The 74.2% of them present dental calculus deposits, which are usually related to a high protein intake. Nevertheless, the high prevalence of carious lesions (15.3% of the teeth) suggests that the main dietary contribution comes from carbohydrates. Furthermore, when this group is compared with one from the Middle Neolithic Age, which presents a lower calculus prevalence, no biological differences are observed. This lack of differences among these groups denote that the origin of the high amount of calculus deposit is environmental, which is consistent with the elevated observation of hypoplasias of the crown enamel. The absence of dietary, biological and economical differences indicates that the population substrate during the Neolithic in Catalonia is the same and that the transition in the funerary rite is related to a substantial change only regarding to mortuary practices. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

DISCOVERY AND CHARACTERIZATION OF AN UNKNOWN BLUE‐GREEN MAYA PIGMENT: VESZELYITE*

Blue‐green mosaic and polychrome masks and funerary offerings from the royal tombs of Calakmul, Mexico, were analysed by scanning electron microscope equipped with energy dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy (SEM‐EDS), X‐ray diffraction (XRD), and particle induced X‐ray emission (PIXE). This led to the first identification of the use of veszelyite, a rare hydrated copper‐zinc phosphate, as green pigment. Analyses of a geological sample of this mineral have been done to confirm the characterization of this Mayan pigment, which might help determine pre‐Columbian trade routes of precious and luxury objects in the ancient Maya Classic period (ad 250–800).     

Infidels and miscreants: love and war in Afghanistan

This article reviews the fruits of a sustained collaboration between the writer and reporter Sebastian Junger and the photographer and filmmaker Tim Hetherington, embedded with the US Army in Afghanistan: Junger's meditation, War; Hetherington's photographs, Infidel; and the documentary film they co‐directed, Restrepo. Taken together, these works offer perhaps the most significant insight into the nature of combat, and combat effectiveness, yet to emerge in the era of the ‘war on terror’. Remarkably enough, their fundamental theme is love.     

Foreign dangers: activities,responsibilities and the problem of women abroad

This paper deals with the construction of the foreign woman as a category that could explain, in the sixth century, the agency or the dangers of wives in different narrative contexts. The diffusion of foreign women in the sixth and seventh centuries as brides of kings and aristocrats is compared to contemporary archaeological funerary evidence. The very important role of Theoderic as wife‐giver king and the context of his power – Italy – developed the concept of a new foreign subject, identifiable in particular among peregrini both from and within Italy. This development heightened the possibility of creating networks and exporting foreign models.     

Gender and Sexuality in Latina/o Miami: Documenting Latina Transsexual Activists

This article examines the borderlands between transgender MTF (male‐to‐female) and gay male communities in Latina/o Miami through an analysis of the participation of Latinas in the Transsexual Action Organization (TAO). Previous research suggests that Cuban and Cuban American gay male culture have historically been associated with gender transgressive behaviour and identity. Because of this, it is often unclear how to distinguish between what is gay male/homosexual expression and transgender expression. If outward gender manifestations that we now call ‘transgender’ were understood in other historical and cultural contexts as ‘homosexual’, how do we label those manifestations today? By labelling them as homosexual are we simply reinscribing the marginalisation of transgender individuals? On the other hand, by labelling them as transgender are we imposing a contemporary category and therefore performing another kind of intellectual violence? In order to address these questions, I analyse a Latino/a organisation that explicitly labelled itself ‘transsexual’. TAO was an early transsexual rights organisation founded in 1970 by Angela Douglas in Los Angeles which moved to Miami Beach, Florida in 1972. Drawing on the organisation's publications, Moonshadow and Mirage Magazine (1972–75), and Douglas's self‐published autobiographical texts, Triple Jeopardy: The Autobiography of Angela Lynn Douglas (1983) and Hollywood's Obsession (1992), I analyse the rarely discussed participation of Latinas in the organisation.     

Honour thy ancstor's possessions

Abstract

This article addresses the ethics of reclaiming moepū (funerary items) for reburial. It centres around a case involving moepū that were removed from a burial cave, conserved by the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, and reburied. Most significant amongst the funerary items removed from the burial cave were four carved wood images of ancestral deities called ki 'ciaumākua and other personal possessions of highranking chiefs. To explain the traditional practice of placing items with the dead, an overview of the traditional role of moepū is provided. Two opposing perspectives in response to the reburial are then presented. The article concludes that, as with iwi kūpuna (ancestral bones), the conservation of moepū is improper and museums should support efforts to return them to their deceased owners. Only by restoring moepū, to their original context — and thereby their original function — can the responsibility of caring for the ancestors be properly maintained and higher levels of traditional cultural understanding be achieved.     

Ashes to ashes. Fuelwood selection in Roman cremation rituals in northern Gaul

To analyse fuelwood collection strategies in Roman funerary rituals in northern Gaul, a large number of charcoal fragments from Roman cremation graves has been identified. The wide variety of taxa found suggests that no particular taxa have been avoided. Also no significant differences have been found between the charcoal assemblages of different types of graves and between graves belonging to different types of settlements. On the other hand, comparison with the charcoal assemblages from Roman refuse deposits, reflecting domestic fuel use, shows an overrepresentation of Quercus sp., Alnus sp. and Fagus sylvatica, and a much lower taxonomic variety in the cremation graves. This is believed to be the consequence of functional rather than ritually or symbolically oriented fuelwood selection strategies.     

Morphometric Analysis of Camelid Remains from the Alero Deodoro Roca (ADR) Site (Córdoba,Argentina). An Attempt to Characterise Body‐Size Variability in Sierras Pampeanas Australes Region

This paper focuses in the morphometric analyses of Lama guanicoe remains recovered from the hunter–gatherer archaeological site Alero Deodoro Roca, located at Sierras Pampeanas Australes region (Córdoba Argentina), an area that has little information on the body‐size variability of these artiodactyls. Because of the sparse osteometric data in the region, we focused on determining inter‐intraspecific differentiation of wild camelids through corroborated osteometric techniques and multivariate statistical analyses of proximal phalanges. Our results showed a clear interspecific differentiation between modern vicuñas and archaeological specimens. We could also distinguish at least three guanaco size groups (small, medium and large) with the archaeological remains from the late Holocene (3000–3600 bp ) of the site, presenting medium‐size characteristics. Finally this paper aims at establishing a first approach in the characterisation of guanaco body size in the mountainous region of Córdoba. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

APPROACHING THE LANDSCAPE DIMENSION OF THE MEGALITHIC PHENOMENON IN SOUTHERN SPAIN

Although the megalithic phenomenon in southern Iberia has received attention since the mid‐nineteenth century, there has been very little attention paid to the role that megalithic structures played in the organization of prehistoric landscapes. Just as in other areas of Europe, however, southern Iberian megalithic structures must have played complex roles in the social organization of landscapes that go far beyond their use as funerary containers. Using examples from our work in southern Iberia, we employ GIS‐based spatial analysis to explore for the first time various aspects of the landscape dimension of these monuments. We discuss three case‐studies for which fresh field data have been recently made available. In the first (Almadén de la Plata) we find patterns of association between medieval transhumance routes and megaliths, and we use cost‐surface modelling to suggest that medieval routes may reflect earlier, prehistoric patterns of movement which in turn suggest that megalithic structures functioned in this area as waypoints within an emerging mobility system for people and livestock. In the second case (Aroche) we show correlations between the locations of megaliths and theoretical territories defined by isochrones and contrast this pattern with the distribution of non‐megalithic funerary sites of the Early Bronze Age, concluding that the spatial distribution of megaliths in this region may relate to their role as landmarks. Lastly we describe a far more specific relationship which we have encountered in the Antequera region, where we believe we have identified a relationship between the orientation of the megalithic structure of Menga, a prominent natural feature and several newly discovered prehistoric sites. Together, these three examples suggest that the current focus on typology, chronology and contents in the study of Iberian megaliths needs to be matched with efforts to identify and interpret the often highly complex structure of the prehistoric landscapes of which they form an integral part.     

Tempo and mode of formation of the Late Epigravettian necropolis of Arene Candide cave (Italy): direct radiocarbon evidence

Existing ¹⁴C dates of charcoal and bone samples from different layers of the Late Epigravettian sequence at Arene Candide (Liguria, Italy) place the formation of the deposit between 12,000 and 10,000 (uncal.) BP, but it is unclear how long this cave was used for funerary purposes. Clarifying this point has important archaeological and anthropological implications, given number and variety of inhumations. These include single and double burials of richly ornamented adults, adolescents and children and disarticulated accumulations of bones. Six new direct ¹⁴C AMS dates obtained from human skeletons place more precisely the necropolis at the Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene boundary, and appear distributed in two distinct groups that indicate two phases of funerary utilisation of the cave. Although separated by many centuries, the two phases of interment show recurring formal elements. Both groups include skeletons in anatomical connection exhibiting similar grave goods as well as chaotic accumulations of bones and, more importantly, the double burial of an adult with a child lying to its left. The reappearance of similar funerary patterns in the same site at two widely separated points in time suggests that the cave held a symbolic significance over several centuries. This, and the additional evidence of funerary use of the cave during the preceding Gravettian, points to the endurance of Upper Palaeolithic cultural traditions.     

Cremated Human Remains Deposited in Two Phases: Evidence from the Necropolis of the Tuileries Site (Lyon,France: 2nd Century AD)

A small 2nd century AD necropolis was discovered at site N°16–28 Tuileries Street, in the 9th district of Lyon. This funerary ensemble included two secondary funerary structures, one containing cremation residues and the other an ossuary. Together, the structures have spatial, stratigraphic and anthropological particularities, which can be used to establish the relative chronology of certain funerary gestures applied to a single individual. Here, we insist on the necessity of detailed anthropological analyses, which allowed us to reestimate the minimum number of individuals, reconsider the relationship between the two different structures and postulate a new interpretation of the funerary gestures. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Images of the defeated: a good death in late Bronze Age Greece?

Abstract

Warriors engaged in combat are characteristic images of Late Bronze Age Greece, depicting both the victors and the defeated. An examination of Early Mycenaean and Mycenaean images of the defeated, and of the presentation of the deceased by their funerary offerings, suggests that a death in battle was not perceived as a disgrace. Furthermore, a display of respect towards the fallen enemy may have enhanced the victor. The surviving images from Late Bronze Age Greece celebrate skill in warfare, both for the victor and also for the defeated. The images suggest that death in battle was considered to be a good death throughout the Late Bronze Age on the Greek mainland, whether victor or loser.     

THE DETERMINATION OF BRICK PROVENANCE AND TECHNOLOGY USING ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES FROM THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES*†

This work applies established analytical techniques from the physical sciences to Irish brick, in order to gather evidence of ceramic technologies, provenance and sources of raw materials. Petrographic microscopy, X‐ray diffractometry and scanning electron microscopy with an energy‐dispersive X‐ray diffraction attachment were used to study the brick of Rathfarham Castle, Dublin, built c. 1618, where clay brick was introduced in 1771. Local clay was fired in the laboratory and analysed in a similar manner. The petrography of the pointing mortar was studied in order to gather evidence of ceramic provenance. This paper concludes that the brick was hand‐ moulded with a silica‐based, predominantly non‐calcareous clay of glacial origin, gathered locally, including fluxes and a high percentage of non‐plastic material. The mineralogy and petrography of the brick, together with the presence of pebbles and a coarse matrix, suggest that the raw clay was probably gathered from a glacial deposit. The presence of abundant pebbles and colour inhomogeneities suggests a lack of processing of the raw clay. The brick was probably fired in clamps at top firing temperatures ranging from 750°C to above 900°C. Transformation of limestone temper involving the breakdown of calcite and the generation of calcium silicates, and the new formation of plagioclase, high‐temperature quartz, hematite and spinel were revealed. The presence of spinel in ‘hot spots’ indicates that fuel was added to the raw clay in order to assist firing.