Slicing Cut Marks on Animal Bones: Diagnostics for Identifying Stone Tool Type and Raw Material

Abstract

Butchering implements leave identifying signatures on bones. From these signatures, it is possible to distinguish the different raw materials and types of chipped stone butchering tools. The results of recent experiments enable us to distinguish the different types of raw materials and tools used in the butchering process, in particular those implements that produce slicing cut marks. Three types of chipped stone tools (blades,flakes, and side scrapers) and raw materials (flint, obsidian, and quartzite), as well as issues relevant to lithic production and use were examined and tested. Silicone molds of cut marks produced by each of the instruments were made and subjected to analysis in light optical and scanning electron microscopes under various levels of magnification. The criteria used for distinguishing tool type, raw material, type of production and use characteristics of the respective cutting instruments are presented, as well as a discussion of the application of the experimental results to the Early Bronze Age I site of Afridar, Israel. The data from Afridar indicate that almost all of the butchering marks on animal bones from the site were made by stone tools, in particular haphazardly-made flakes.     

POST-COLONIZATION INTERACTION BETWEEN VANUATU AND FIJI RECONSIDERED: THE RE-ANALYSIS OF OBSIDIAN FROM LAKEBA ISLAND, FIJI*

PIXE–PIGME analysis of 19 obsidian artefacts from Lakeba Island in east Fiji identified contact with northern Vanuatu in the post-colonization period ( c. 2500–1000 bp ) of Fiji. The Lakeba obsidian is the only physical evidence for interaction across the 850 km water gap separating the archipelagos of Vanuatu and Fiji in the first millennium ad . New research on the Vanuatu obsidian sources with laser ablation – inductively coupled plasma – mass spectrometry (LA–ICP–MS) casts serious doubt on the validity of a long-distance inter-archipelago connection in the post-Lapita era. This paper presents the re-analysis of 18 obsidian artefacts from Lakeba using LA–ICP–MS and radiogenic isotope results that demonstrate that the Lakeba obsidian is not from Vanuatu, and it most likely derives from the Fiji–Tonga region. Geochemical evidence for long-distance interaction and migration between the West and Central Pacific in the post-Lapita era has yet to be identified.     

NON‐DESTRUCTIVE SOURCING OF BRONZE AGE NEAR EASTERN OBSIDIAN ARTEFACTS: REDEVELOPING AND REASSESSING ELECTRON MICROPROBE ANALYSIS FOR OBSIDIAN SOURCING*

Despite predictions in the 1980s that electron microprobe analysis (EMPA) would become a popular technique for obsidian sourcing, few studies have used it with this goal, and most of them are now outdated and unrepresentative of modern EMPA. For example, Merrick and Brown (1984 ) recorded their data on punch cards. Furthermore, these studies destructively prepared artefacts for analysis. The research at hand endeavoured: (1) to establish the modern capabilities of EMPA for obsidian sourcing; and (2) to develop and evaluate procedures for non‐destructive artefact analysis. Issues such as diagenetic effects and compatibility with NAA and XRF data were also investigated.     

TRANSPORT AND SUBSISTENCE PATTERNS AT THE TRANSITION TO PASTORALISM,KOOBI FORA,KENYA

The Turkana Basin in Kenya has an extensive record of Holocene activities relating to mobility and economy of foraging and herding communities. Obsidian is only known from a few key localities in northern Kenya. As such, the use of obsidian as a toolstone material, commonly used during the mid‐Holocene, provides one way to trace exchange, interaction and population movements during the transition to pastoralism. We employ X‐ray fluorescence to characterize obsidian artefacts from four Pastoral Neolithic assemblages. Data reveal a highly mobile and diversified population that used watercraft to access and transport obsidian resources. Specifically, the use of the North Island obsidian source in Lake Turkana indicates that boat use was significant during this transitional period. The incorporation of watercraft transport and aquatic resources in our analyses of Pastoral Neolithic sites affords a greater understanding of subsistence, mobility and economy in this important period in East African prehistory.     

GEOCHEMICAL PROVENANCE OF OBSIDIAN ARTEFACTS FROM THE MSA SITE OF PORC EPIC,ETHIOPIA*

Obsidian geochemical analysis has become an indispensable tool in archaeological research and has wide applications. However, in spite of the abundance of geological and archaeological obsidian, there has been virtually no such investigation in Ethiopia. Recent instrumental characterization of 31 obsidian artefacts from the Middle Stone Age site of Porc Epic and numerous obsidian geological sources show that artefacts were being transported from as far as 250 km away. We believe this has relevance to the understanding of the emergence of modern human behaviour.     

PROVENANCE STUDIES OF CHALCOLITHIC OBSIDIAN ARTEFACTS FROM NEAR LAKE URMIA, NORTHWESTERN IRAN USING WDXRF ANALYSIS

In 2005–2006 we initiated a major archaeological survey and chemical characterization study to investigate the long-term use of obsidian along the eastern shores of Lake Urmia, northwestern Iran. Previous research in the area suggested that almost all archaeological obsidian found in this area originated from the Nemrut Daĝ source located in the Lake Van region of Anatolia (Turkey). More recent research on obsidian artefacts from the Lake Urmia region has identified a significant number of obsidian artefacts with compositions different from the sources near Lake Van. This suggests that the obsidian artefacts are from a yet to be identified geological source, but possibly one that was not too distant. In order to advance our knowledge of Iranian obsidians and eventually refine provenance criteria we analysed obsidian from 22 Chalcolithic sites and some source areas. The compositions of both obsidian source samples and artefacts were determined using wave length dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (WDXRF). This paper presents results from the trace elemental analysis of both geological and archaeological obsidians, providing important new data concerning the diachronic relationship between lithic technology and raw material in the north-west of Iran.     

Determining the preservation rating of submerged archaeology in the post-glacial southern North Sea: a first-order geomorphological approach

Abstract

During most of the last glaciation, the southern North Sea floor was exposed and accessible to humans. Archaeological finds are concentrated around Brown Bank, Dogger Bank and the Norfolk Banks, but the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic archaeological potential of these areas is poorly known. Management of submerged archaeological heritage requires knowledge about location (potential) and context, ascribing significance (value) and determining risk. Thus, the preservation potential of primary and secondary archaeological material around these three areas is considered a) in the context of the post-glacial evolution of the southern North Sea and b) regarding natural and anthropogenic processes. A detailed review is followed by original research material describing an approach to assessing preservation potential. In general, low-energy deposits associated with former intertidal, floodplain or lacustrine environments are likely to preserve primary archaeological material, including organic remains, whilst (high-energy) riverine environments are more likely to preserve inorganic secondary archaeological material. The main possible anthropogenic impacts on submerged archaeology result from beam trawling, which may disturb deposits at the seafloor, and aggregate dredging, which may remove secondary deposits. Trawling and aggregate dredging are increasingly contributing to knowledge, through reporting finds through established protocols, and through assisting in funding relevant to multi-disciplinary research.     

Some Evidence for Seasonality amongst Later Stone Age Hunter-gatherers in Southern Africa

Abstract

The Later Stone Age (LSA) period in Southern Africa is characterised by a succession of cultural traditions. The LSA hunter-gatherer populations were ancestral to the present-day San. They moved around in small bands, within a semi-fixed territory visiting open air and shelter sites to coincide with available resources.

The hunter-gatherers filled every niche in the environment, including the high mountains, deserts and semi-deserts, bush savanna and grass lands. They were well aware of the food sources available in their territories during the course of a year and utilized these opportunities. As winters in southern Africa are relatively mild, and most regions have foods available throughout the year, seasonality is difficult to demonstrate.

In only a few instances there is some evidence for seasonal use or seasonality. Age profiles of seals at Elands Bay Cave suggest short occupation periods during late winter and early spring. In the high mountains of South Africa and Lesotho, where winters are cold and frost and snow common, the faunal and floral remains suggest occupation during late spring, summer and early autumn. Abbot's Cave in the semi-arid central Karoo was used as a hunting lodge during September, relating to the lambing season and migratory behaviour of springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis).     

On-Site Recording of Excavation Data Using Mobile GIS

Abstract

Archaeologists have embraced new technologies in many aspects of research, but reliance on paperbased recording has impeded development of excavation recording methods. The digital recording of spatial provenience for artifacts and features, together with complex attributes during excavation, while not problem-free, provides a streamlined recording process. This article describes a digital interface that links precise spatial provenience with digital forms and geo-referenced photographs during excavation at a colonial site in highland Peru. A customized version of ESRI ArcPad provides the means to create and to explore spatial and attribute data in the field and laboratory as GIS data, which in turn can be integrated with ArcGIS for post-field visualization and analysis.     

The Use of Strontium Isotope Analysis to Investigate Tiwanaku Migration and Mortuary Ritual in Bolivia and Peru

Strontium isotope analysis is applied in South America for the first time in order to investigate residential mobility and mortuary ritual from ad 500 to 1000. While Tiwanaku‐style artefacts are spread throughout Bolivia, southern Peru and northern Chile during this time, the nature of Tiwanaku influence in the region is much debated. Human skeletal remains from the site of Tiwanaku and the proposed Tiwanaku colony of Chen Chen have been analysed to test the hypothesis that Tiwanaku colonies, populated with inhabitants from Tiwanaku, existed in Peru. Strontium isotope analysis supports this hypothesis by demonstrating that non‐local individuals are present at both sites.     

The dating of Doggerland – post-glacial geochronology of the southern North Sea

Abstract

The landscapes and archaeological sites of the southern North Sea, drowned in the period 12–6 ky BP, represent an almost unexplored field of research. Published palaeoenvironmental reconstructions are largely speculative, being based on few published sea-level index points and in the absence of detailed physical and chronological surveys. In this paper, we review the post-glacial geochronology for the southern North Sea, which includes 54 radiocarbon ages derived from peat, 17 from molluscs and one known dated artefact. The lack of detailed contextual information for many dated samples means that there remains uncertainty in some elevation data, and thus in the resulting interpreted sea level. The archaeological artefacts are mostly derived deposits and thus are of limited use in palaeoenvironmental reconstruction. Overall, the data are consistent with current models of relative sea-level change back to about 10 ky BP (～45 m depth) but beyond this, there is very little published data. Much more detailed stratigraphic, microfossil and geochemical analysis is needed to help verify chronological data, help interpret the sedimentary settings in which fossils and artefacts are found, and contribute towards more reliable palaeoenvironmental and archaeological reconstructions of the history of the southern North Sea.     

SOURCING OBSIDIAN FROM NEOLITHIC ÇATALHÖYÜK (TURKEY) USING ENERGY DISPERSIVE X‐RAY FLUORESCENCE*

This paper details the chemical sourcing of 42 obsidian artefacts from a single Neolithic structure at Çatalhöyük (central Anatolia), using Energy Dispersive X‐Ray Fluorescence (EDXRF). The chemical signatures of the samples match those of two geological sources in southern Cappadocia: East Göllü Da? and Nenezi Da?. The data provide a counterpoint for previous analyses at the site, and suggest possible intra‐community distinctions with regard to shifts in raw material procurement and technical change.     

MULTIPLE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES FOR CHEMICALLY SIMILAR OBSIDIANS FROM THE AREA OF PORTADA COVUNCO,WEST‐CENTRAL NEUQUÉN,ARGENTINA

In west‐central Neuquén Province, Argentina, in the area around Estancia Llamuco, west of Zapala, south of Las Lajas and north‐east of Lago Aluminé, there are multiple primary and secondary sources of obsidian. Primary sources occur within the south‐east extension of the Plio‐Quaternary volcanic chain that runs from Copahue volcano through Pino Hachado. Secondary sources include river‐bed gravels within the valleys of Arroyo Cochicó Grande and Río Kilca as far south as where this river joins with Río Aluminé, and the Quaternary fluvial–glacial sediments cut by the valley of Río Covunco as far east as Portada Covunco. Visually variable obsidians from these two secondary sources include homogeneous black and grey‐translucent types, porphyritic and banded types, and an abundant quantity of oxidized red and black obsidian. However, all these visually distinct obsidians have similar and unique chemistry, with Ba between 220 and 340 ppm, different from any other obsidians previously reported from Neuquén, which all have Ba > 500 ppm, as do obsidians from sources to the north in Mendoza and to the west in Chile. This chemical distinctive obsidian has been exploited and transported over a wide area, beginning prior to 4000 bp , and occurs in local archaeological sites, as well as sites ≥ 300 km to the north‐east in La Pampa Province, ～430 km to the south in Chubut Province, and >75 km to the west across the Andean drainage divide in Chile.