Testing heterogeneity in faunal assemblages from archaeological sites. Tumbling and trampling experiments at the early-Middle Pleistocene site of Gesher Benot Ya’aqov (Israel)

The current paper reports an experimental case study to test the heterogeneity of faunal assemblages from the Early-Middle Pleistocene Layers V-5 and V-6 of the Gesher Benot Ya’aqov Acheulian site (Israel). Tumbling and trampling experiments were initiated to gain qualitative insight into processes of bone modification and to assess the timing of the biostratonomic chronology, as it was assumed that both mechanisms were responsible for the formation of striations documented on the bone surfaces from the site. The tumbling experiments mimicked sediment movement in a calm lacustrine shoreline environment whereas the trampling experiments investigate the role of animal/hominin activities in dry, muddy and wet environments. Models for the internal operational sequence of an abrasional process due to uni- and multidirectional water movement and of a trampling scenario are presented. These models are used for the interpretation of the fauna from Gesher Benot Ya’aqov.     

The technology and significance of the Acheulian giant cores of Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov,Israel

The presence of very large lithic artifacts at the Acheulian site of Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov is one of the site’s most distinctive and enlightening features. Basalt giant cores and their products, modified by a variety of core methods and found in association with different hominin activities, occur throughout the stratigraphic sequence of the site.     

Digital imaging technology and experimental archeology: a methodological framework for the identification and interpretation of fire modified rock (FMR)

This paper presents the results of a series of experiments for the identification and analysis of fire modified rock (FMR). FMR is a common but frequently overlooked artifact type. Experiments were conducted simulating the effects of different hypothetical burning scenarios on rocks similar to those found in a South African Middle Stone Age site. A digital imaging method was then used to quantify FMR color values, designed to limit intra-analyst bias. Statistical tests and a blind test suggest that unburned rocks and experimental FMR can be separated statistically based on physical appearance. Two burning scenario models, based on measured experimental data were applied to archaeological FMR from a South African Middle Stone Age site named Pinnacle Point 5-6 (PP5-6) and show that the archaeological samples are not statistically different from a simulated campfire and possibly a lithic raw material heat-treatment fire.     

NO STONE UNBURNED: A COMPOSITIONAL ANALYSIS OF OBSIDIAN MICRODEBITAGE BY LASER ABLATION TOF–ICP–MS

Obsidian is an effective material for the study of prehistoric raw material use and exchange, due to the high degree of homogeneity and redundancy of obsidian materials and manufactured objects in the archaeological record. The destructive nature of many analytical techniques often impedes compositional research because of the damage that may occur to priceless archaeological artefacts. The combination of time‐of‐flight (TOF) ICP–MS with a laser ablation sample introduction system provides a highly efficient means of chemically characterizing obsidian. This study shows that sample size limit capabilities of TOF–ICP–MS analysis of obsidian can reach less than 100 μm. Sampling and analysis of microartefacts enables researchers to overcome problems of sampling bias with very little damage to the valuable existing materials within the archaeological record and expands the potential for chemical compositional analyses in archaeology.     

FACTORS AFFECTING THE VIABILITY OF THERMOLUMINESCENCE DATING OF GLASS

The aim of this study is to achieve a better understanding of some of the factors that limit the thermoluminescence (TL) dating of glass. Using a‘model system’(lithium-disilicate samples having different levels of crystallinity from 0 to 100%), we show, first, that the TL of glass is reproducible only if the glass is not heated above its temperature glass transition and second, that there is a clear connection between the TL sensitivity and the degree of crvstallinity of the sample. We conclude that thermoluminescence is not a general dating method for archaeological glass, but it can be applied to particular glass samples that haue specified characteristics.     

Microartefacts' weight estimation by Genetic Algorithm minimization

The information potential of microartefacts can assist in archaeological interpretation. In this paper, a method for estimating the weight of microartefacts is presented. This method is based on Genetic Algorithms, a stochastic minimisation method that comes from Computational Intelligence techniques. It was observed that Genetic Algorithms offer a reliable estimation of microartefact weights. Experimental results are presented on archaeological data from the Neolithic site of Paliambela, in Northern Greece.     

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF URANIUM AND OF TL-PRODUCING MINERALS IN ARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIALS

A technique is described by which the spatial distribution of uranium as well as of thermoluminescent minerals can be examined in the same archaeological sample. The uranium distribution is replicated on an aluminized plastic film with the help of a ‘spark counter’following reactor-irradiation of the sample, while the TL pattern is photographed directly from a γ-irradiated sample. Implications for dating from such a comparative examination are discussed for certain pottery and flint samples.     

A NEW THERMOLUMINESCENCE DATING TECHNIQUE FOR HEATED FLINT*

A new thermoluminescence (TL) technique for determining the age of heated flint artefacts from archaeological sites is presented. It is a variant of the SAR protocol, which is usually used for OSL dating of sediment, but it is not based on a presumed model for fitting the dose–response curve. Dose recovery tests as well as comparisons with standard protocols show the accuracy of the new technique. It is found that the sensitivity of the thermoluminescence (TL) signal of flint in the orange–red waveband does not show severe changes due to the heating process while measuring the TL. This allows the application of a short SAR procedure, which requires only two dose points. The technique does not require as much instrument time as other SAR techniques, and thus is advantageous for dating very old samples. The major advantage of this new technique is the small amount of sample material required, which allows the dating of samples that are too small for standard TL dating techniques.     

FOCUS: Provenance of Ceramics Revealed by Magnetic Susceptibility and Thermoluminescence

A new method for provenance determination of ceramics is presented. The samples were measured for magnetic susceptibility and for the TL intensity produced by artificially induced radiation in a pre-heated sample. Characteristic differences in magnetic susceptibility and TL sensitivity were found to exist between different clay sources, and in a diagram of susceptibility versus TL intensity, ceramics of different provenances often plot in distinctly different areas. Samples of 0·01–1 g of burnt clay were used. The method has been tested on a dozen archaeological sites, three of which are presented here as examples. Choice of tempering material, firing temperature, and oxygen tension during firing affect the susceptibility and the TL signals somewhat, and these effects have been tested experimentally.     

Fires at Neumark-Nord 2, Germany: An analysis of fire proxies from a Last Interglacial Middle Palaeolithic basin site

Few sites with evidence for fire use are known from the Last Interglacial in Europe. Hearth features are rarely preserved, probably as a result of post-depositional processes. The small postglacial basins (<300?m in diameter) that dominate the sedimentary context of the Eemian record in Europe are high-resolution environmental archives often containing charcoal particles. This case study presents the macroscopic charcoal record of the Neumark-Nord 2 basin, Germany, and the correlation of this record with the distinct find levels of the basin margin that also contain thermally altered archaeological material. Increased charcoal quantities are shown to correspond to phases of hominin presence—a pattern that fits best with recurrent anthropogenic fires within the watershed. This research shows the potential of small basin localities in the reconstruction of local fire histories, where clear archaeological features like hearths are missing.     

Thermoluminescence dating

Over the last few years the Nordic Laboratory for Thermoluminescence (TL) Dating has obtained TL dates for a considerable number of archaeological samples, ceramics, bricks, burnt clay and burnt stones from the Nordic countries. The majority of TL dates have been consistent and in agreement with other dating evidence. Discrepancies caused primarily by excessive short‐term fading of the latent TL signal were encountered in a few cases. A procedure for eliminating errors caused by short‐term fading is described. A brief discussion of the sources of error in TL dating is given. Finally, results obtained by TL are compared with those obtained by radiocarbon for a number of sites.     

Thermoluminescence Dating of Surface Lithic Artefacts from the Chacabuco Valley,Chilean Patagonia

This work presents several thermoluminescence (TL) dates of six archaeological sites located in the Andean valley of the Chacabuco River, central Patagonia. We discuss the advantages of this method to assess the chronology of human occupations, employing samples of lithic artefacts with evidence of fire exposure from surface contexts in the area. We compare the results with stratigraphic archaeological dating by ¹⁴C. We discuss these results in the context of previously formulated hypotheses on the past behaviour of the human population in this area.     

A statistical approach to the archaeological identification of crop processing

Since the processing of crops has a direct effect on the composition of archaeobotanical samples, variation due to crop processing must be filtered out before using samples for the study of crop economy and husbandry. As the archaeological context of plant material does not often provide a reliable basis for the identification of crop processing products and byproducts, this paper presents a method based on the statistical comparison of archaeological samples with ethnographically collected material and on an internal statistical analysis of the archaeological samples themselves. These analyses make use of differences in the categories of weed seeds extracted at each stage of the crop processing sequence and are thus more reliable and more widely applicable than simple calculations of the relative quantities of grain, chaff and weed. Ethnographic and archaeological material from Greece is used to illustrate the method and some of the wider implications of the results are discussed.     

Geoarchaeology in an urban context: The uses of space in a Phoenician monumental building at Tel Dor (Israel)

Interpretation of past urban societies in the Near East, whose settlements are known mostly as tell sites, is largely based on macro-stratigraphy and on the association of architecture with macroscopic artifacts. Analyses of sediments, common in prehistoric sites, are rare in tell sites. Here we show the results of a detailed geoarchaeological study of the micro-stratigraphy of a sedimentary sequence associated with early Iron Age Phoenician monumental architecture. The study involves mineralogical, micromorphological and phytolith analyses and provides new insights into the stratigraphic sequence and the use of architectural spaces. The sedimentary sequence examined comprises alternating layers of gray ‘fill’ deposits and white ‘floors’. We show that ‘floors’ made from local calcareous sandstone in the lower part of the sedimentary sequence were heated and are thus in effect ‘plaster floors’. A concentration of micro-laminated, trampled fish remains above the most elaborate of these plaster ‘floors’ indicates activities related to fish processing. Fine white layers in the upper part of the sedimentary sequence that were considered as plaster based on macroscopic examination are in fact composed almost entirely of opaline grass phytoliths. The phytoliths appear in an undulating micro-laminated structure and are associated with dung spherulites and phosphate nodules, thus probably reflecting livestock penning. The formation of ‘phytolith floors’ involves extensive volume reduction due to the degradation of the organic material and this may result in ‘floor’ subsidence, a phenomenon that is often observed in archaeological sites. Most ‘fill’ deposits include macroscopic and microscopic remains of wood ash, bones, phytoliths, charcoal, ceramics, plaster and mollusk shells, reflecting the debris produced from household activities. This study shows how a combination of macro-stratigraphy with microscopic and mineralogical analyses of the sediments within architectural spaces can provide information on the varying ways in which the space was used through time, and also contributes to solving macro-stratigraphic problems.     

The RAAR Project — Heritage Management Aspects on Reburial After Ten Years of Work

Abstract

The general purpose of the international reburial project, Reburial and Analyses of Archaeological Remains (RAAR), is to evaluate reburial as a method for the long-term storage and preservation of waterlogged archaeological remains. Since 2001 material samples have been buried, retrieved, analysed systematically, and the results reported.

RAAR has mainly focused on the degradation of materials commonly encountered on archaeological sites, and on environmental monitoring techniques in order to determine what type of material can be reburied and for how long. The project has concluded that a heritage institution could provide short- or long-term curation for its archaeological archive by using reburial depots provided they are set up according to guidelines and restrictions stipulated by the RAAR project.

However, there are management and legal aspects that need to be discussed and resolved before each reburial project. Actual reburials that have been carried out so far are often a solution to emergency situations and lack collection and management policies. The questions ‘what’, ‘why’, and ‘for how long’ have been forgotten and need to be addressed. The legal protection of a reburial site is also important. This paper discusses these aspects and their consequences and highlights possible differences in approaches between the countries involved in the RAAR project.     

Cooked Bones? Method and Practice for Identifying Bones Treated at Low Temperature

Is it possible to determine low‐temperature cooking in archaeological bones? The indirect exposure of bones to fire at low temperature (≤ 100 °C), linked to cooking, produces macroscopic modifications on these bones. These modifications have not been clearly or systematically described previously. Instead, physicochemical changes at nanometric level are only now beginning to be understood. In this paper, our principle aim is to explore new methods and techniques that correlate macroscopic features such as smoothness or light transparency with physicochemical characterization results that could aid towards detecting cooked bones in the archaeological record. This study then selected 11 archaeological samples, both human and non‐human. Bones were considered to be thermally treated or not, on the basis of macroscopic criteria. Complementary characterization techniques were used to study morphology (scanning electron microscopy and small angle X‐ray scattering), structure (X‐ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy), local composition (energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy) and texture (gas adsorption). Indeed, fractal dimension, particle size, crystalline percentage or specific surface area may well explain some of the macroscopically observed modifications on these samples. The possibility that such apparent modifications may also be due to diagenesis is also considered. From an archaeological point of view, the results are promising. Our characterization of human and non‐human bones demonstrates that physicochemical techniques are complementary and provide good criteria against which to distinguish boiled from un‐boiled archaeological samples. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The red-stained flint crescent from Gesher: new insights into PPNA hafting technology

A red-stained flint crescent found in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (ca. 9000 BC) site of Gesher, Israel, provides us with a unique opportunity to study the hafting technology of a particular tool type in the Levant. We present here a reconstruction, based on chemical and mineralogical analyses, of the hafting technologies and materials employed in the process. Use will also be made of relevant studies of the archaeological record. Local material was used for the production of an elastic adhesive paste, mud plaster, which was then hardened to hold the crescent securely in the haft. The study contributes insight into the hafting technology that was most probably implemented in the production and maintenance of composite tools during the Early Neolithic period.     

THERMOLUMINESCENCE DATING OF MATERIALS WHICH EXHIBIT ANOMALOUS FADING

This article reports a generalised and systematic approach to the thermoluminescence (TL) dating of samples which suffer from anomalous fading. We hypothesise that the TL signal from each mineral phase is composed of a stable and an unstable portion. The decay of the unstable TL is accelerated thermally, until only stable TL remains. The dating is then carried out on this stable signal. The results, on four known-age, coeval samples, exhibiting gross anomalous fading (25-50% loss over a few days), indicate that many, if not all, samples may successfully be dated with this approach.     

Optically stimulated luminescence dating of heated materials using single-aliquot regenerative-dose procedure: a feasibility study using archaeological artefacts from India

Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating of heated/fired materials of archaeological importance from various parts of India was attempted. A single-aliquot regenerative-dose (SAR) procedure was used for palaeodose determination in the quartz grains extracted from the heated materials using the luminescence produced by blue light stimulation. In most pottery samples, the palaeodose obtained using SAR-OSL is ∼6% lower than the palaeodose measured using thermoluminescence (TL) method. Broadly, there is good agreement between the SAR-OSL and TL ages of the artefacts and their archaeologically expected ages. The results suggest that routine dating of heated/fired materials using the SAR-OSL procedure is more practicable, especially when the TL sensitivity of the quartz grains is poor and availability of datable material is limited.