Exploring chronic arsenic poisoning in pre-Columbian Chilean mummies

This paper explores to what extent arsenic poisoning affected pre-Columbian northern Chile populations living between Arica and Iquique cities. We hypothesize, the pre-Columbian inhabitants of this region, will show arseniasis according to modern geographic endemic levels. Continuous exposure to high levels of arsenic causes serious health problems. Today, in the Camarones valley, where many Chinchorro people lived, arsenic levels are 100 times above the 10 μg/L recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO). Using laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) we determined arsenic levels in a single strand of hair of 45 Arica mummies coming from ten sites (Morro 1, Morro 1/5, Yungay 372, Camarones 8, 9, 15D, and 17 and Azapa 140, Sermenia and Patillos), ranging from Chinchorro (ca. 5000–2000 years B.C.) to the Late Intermediate Period (1000–1400 years A.D.). Each hair was cleaned using distilled ionized water and placed on double sided mounting tape and ablated using a 266 nm Nd-YAG UV laser. Hair samples were also investigated for potential diagenesis.     

Sources of mummy bitumen in ancient Egypt and Palestine

Bitumen used as a preservative in ancient Egyptian mummies was previously thought to come only from the Dead Sea in Palestine. Other, closer sources of bitumen were investigated at Abu Durba and Gebel Zeit on the shores of Egypt’s Gulf of Suez. Bitumen from these localities and from five mummies was analysed using molecular biomarkers derived from gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. It was found that four of the mummies contained Dead Sea bitumen, and the fifth and oldest (900 bc) had bitumen from Gebel Zeit, thus providing the first evidence for the use of an indigenous source of bitumen in ancient Egypt.     

Damage caused by insects during the mummification process: an experimental study

The process of mummification had been known since the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom (ca. 2600 bc) and continued to develop throughout ancient Egyptian history. Although mummification protected the body from decay, especially by microbes, some mummification techniques left the body susceptible to insect attack. Certain types of insects have been detected in the mummies. In scholarly publications, most authors have dealt with microorganisms, while few have concerned themselves in depth with the effect of insects on the mummies. This study aims to discuss the significance of insects and the changes they affected to the mummies during embalming. To achieve this goal, experiments were carried out replicating various mummification techniques using albino Wistar rats. Analysis and investigative techniques used included visual observation, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, investigation of the surface morphology by a scanning electron microscope, and color change by a spectrophotometer. The following insects could be identified as being present during the second and third processes of mummification: Dermestes maculatus, Necrobia rufipes, Saprinus gilvicornis, Chrysomya albiceps, Wohlfahrtia magnifica, and Attagenus fasciatus. In addition, the majority of our findings confirmed that the degradation by insects increased with the second and third methods of mummification. Finally, the experimental study conducted using the mummification techniques of the New Kingdom (ca. 1570–1070 bc) indicated that they were more resistant to insect attack than the other types.     

Embalming methods and plants in Renaissance Italy: two artificial mummies from Siena (central Italy)

Knowledge of the embalming methods used in Renaissance Italy comes not only from the literary texts of physicians and surgeons of that period, but also from artificial mummies which have been found. In 1999 two mummified bodies, dated back to the end of 15^th and beginning of the 16^th century, were recovered in a crypt of the hospital chapel of Santa Maria della Scala in Siena (central Italy). The individuals were identified as Salimbene Capacci (1433–1497), Rector of the hospital, and his wife, Margherita Sozzini (?-1511). The mummies were submitted to autopsy and paleopathological examination, which included Computed Tomography. Palaeobotanical and palynological analyses were performed on the vegetable materials and plants used to fill the body cavities. This study was carried out with a multidisciplinary perspective, that allowed us to reconstruct the embalming techniques and substances used for mummification. The results are compared with the evidences provided by other mummies and embalming handbooks of that time.     

Hair surface and mechanical properties of Copt mummies from Antinopolis

In the late nineteenth century, excavations were conducted in the necropolis of the site of Antinopolis, a city founded in 130 CE. Over sixty Copt mummies, out of the thousands of graves excavated, were brought to France in the early twentieth century. Unlike mummies of the Pharaonic era, no specific study has been conducted on the mummies of the Christian era. To identify these techniques of mummification and their state of preservation, the Louvre museum has conducted a multidisciplinary study on thirty-nine mummies located throughout France.In this work, we studied the surface topography and the mechanical properties of the hair from eleven mummies.To qualify the hair wear, 3D topography of their surface has been measured with an interferometer of vertical resolution 2 nm and an analysed surface of 20 × 84 μm. The results show that, for most of the hair samples, the cuticle has completely disappeared and the cortex appears very porous. However, for a few of the hair samples, the scales are perfectly regular like those of healthy hair, which is probably due to the mummification techniques used.The mechanical properties of the hair were determined using a three-point bending mechanical test.The results show that the mechanical hair properties are not correlated with the surface morphology of the cuticle.     

Cats of the Pharaohs: Genetic Comparison of Egyptian Cat Mummies to their Feline Contemporaries

The ancient Egyptians mummified an abundance of cats during the Late Period (664 - 332 BC). The overlapping morphology and sizes of developing wildcats and domestic cats confounds the identity of mummified cat species. Genetic analyses should support mummy identification and was conducted on two long bones and a mandible of three cats that were mummified by the ancient Egyptians. The mummy DNA was extracted in a dedicated ancient DNA laboratory at the University of California - Davis, then directly sequencing between 246 and 402 bp of the mtDNA control region from each bone. When compared to a dataset of wildcats (Felis silvestris silvestris, F. s. tristrami, and F. chaus) as well as a previously published worldwide dataset of modern domestic cat samples, including Egypt, the DNA evidence suggests the three mummies represent common contemporary domestic cat mitotypes prevalent in modern Egypt and the Middle East. Divergence estimates date the origin of the mummies' mitotypes to between two and 7.5 thousand years prior to their mummification, likely prior to or during Egyptian Predyanstic and Early Dynastic Periods. These data are the first genetic evidence supporting that the ancient Egyptians used domesticated cats, F. s. catus, for votive mummies, and likely implies cats were domesticated prior to extensive mummification of cats.     

Ultramicroscopic investigation of the preservation status of hair collected from a full‐term,intrauterine baby mummy of the Joseon Dynasty,Korea

Our previous studies on the ultramicroscopic structure of mummy hair from Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910) tombs sealed with a lime‐soil mixture barrier (LSMB) have provided initial, basic information on their preservation status. Numerous additional cases of various conditions are required in order to provide data sufficient for establishing Korean mummy preservation patterns on a firm basis, however, and so we performed electron microscopic studies on hair taken from a full‐term, intrauterine baby mummy found in Paju, Korea. The baby mummy was found within the uterus of a 16th‐century mummified woman aged 20–30 years old. Since the labour and delivery stage for this case was 2, and the uterus was found to be ruptured, the cause of death of both the mother and the baby was likely to have been hypovolemic shock occurring during labour. In scanning electron microscopic (SEM) and transmission electron microscopic (TEM) studies, we found that the surface of the hair of the baby mummy was coated with crystalline substances, mainly on the side facing the vaginal orifice. We also observed well‐preserved cuticle, cortex and medullar layers, completely preserved cuticle‐layer scales, as well as macrofibrils and melanin granules evenly spread within the cuticle and cortex layers. Because studies on infant or subadult mummies are very few, and since they have focused mainly on the palaeopathological aspects of those mummies, the preservation pattern of the hair of a full‐term baby mummy could contribute significantly to our knowledge of mummies from around the world. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Nicotine in the hair of mummies from San Pedro de Atacama (Northern Chile)

The consumption of plant-derived hallucinogenic substances through smoking and snuffing is a long-standing tradition in the south-central Andes. Chemical and archaeobotanical evidence point to the consumption of nicotine and tryptamine alkaloids in Northwestern Argentina and of tryptamine alkaloids in San Pedro de Atacama (SPA), in prehispanic times. In this paper, results are reported of gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analyses aimed at identifying nicotine and tryptamine alkaloids in the hair of mummies from different cultural periods of SPA. Fifty-six samples were examined. While tryptamines were not found in any of the samples, nicotine was found in 35 samples, assigned to the Late Formative (1 of 1 sample from this period), Late Formative or Middle (1 of 2 samples from either of these periods), Middle (4 of 6 samples from this period) and Late Intermediate periods (8 of 12 samples from this period), or without assignment to period due to lack of contextual information (21 of 35 samples unassigned to a period). These results show a continuous consumption of nicotine from the Late Formative to the Late Intermediate periods of SPA (ca. 100 B.C.–1450 A.D.). No associations were found between presence of nicotine in the hair of mummies and presence of snuffing trays or of other snuffing paraphernalia in the corresponding tomb; furthermore, neither the diversity of the funerary context, measured in terms of the number of types of objects, nor the presence of gemstone necklaces differed between tombs with mummies with or without nicotine in their hair. Overall, these results suggest that consumption of nicotine was performed by members of the society at large, irrespective of their social and wealth status.     

The prehistory of northern Chile: A synthesis

Northern Chile, part of the south central Andes, consists of two main ecological subareas: extreme northern Chile, including the western valleys, and the Atacama Desert and oases. Different ecological conditions obtain in each subarea: puna, altiplano, and precordillera in the highlands; valleys, the desert, and oases in the intermediate zone; and coastal environments along the Pacific shores. In prehistoric times, all these environments were very interconnected. There are three different cultural traditions in the local prehistory: the early hunting and gathering tradition (10,000–4000 B.P.), the Chinchorro Tradition (7500–2500 B.P.), and the Altiplano or Andean Tradition (3000–0 B.P.). This proposed sequence is described, with emphasis on the early Chinchorro adaptations, including the important patterns of mummification, and its possible relation to tropical forest groups of the Amazon basin; and the Pre-Tiwanaku and later Tiwanaku and Inca developments, in relation to the circum-Titicaca region. The data presented in the paper are further developed to explore ideas and hypotheses for future research.     

ROMANO‐EGYPTIAN RED LEAD PIGMENT: A SUBSIDIARY COMMODITY OF SPANISH SILVER MINING AND REFINEMENT*

Samples of red pigment from a group of seven Roman‐period Egyptian mummies, known as red‐shroud mummies, are investigated. Elemental analysis by inductively coupled plasma time‐of‐flight mass spectrometry (ICP–TOFMS) shows that the samples contain mostly Pb (83–92% by weight), along with 0.2–2.0% Sn. All of the samples are found to have similar trace element distributions when normalized to the continental crust, suggesting that they share a common geological origin. Lead isotope ratios are found to match the mixed lead sources typically associated with Rio Tinto, Spain – a site extensively mined for silver during the first century ad . Raman microspectroscopy identifies the major phase of each sample to be red lead (Pb₃O₄) with a minor phase of lead tin oxide (Pb₂SnO₄). Lead tin oxide does not occur naturally, and its incidental occurrence within the sample indicates that the material was heated under oxidative conditions at temperatures in excess of 650°C. In archaeological contexts, the high‐temperature oxidative treatment of lead is typically associated with metallurgical refinement processes such as cupellation. Based on this evidence, it is argued that the pigment was produced out of litharge associated with silver cupellation at the Rio Tinto site.     

Virtual anthropology and forensic arts: the facial reconstruction of Ferrante Gonzaga

In the last few years virtual anthropology has been used to solve different problems that could not be properly addressed using a traditional anthropological approach. Mainly when dealing with mummies or embalmed bodies, the virtual approach is the only solution to carry out a detailed analysis of the skeleton without jeopardizing the integrity of the physical remains.     

A Review of the Evidence for Melanoma in Nine Inca Mummies

An often cited statement in the medical literature is that nine Inca mummies (c.400 bc ) had skin and osseous lesions from melanoma. However, a review of the pattern and type of osseous lesions exhibited by these individuals and the age of at least one of them indicate the data are inconsistent with a diagnosis of melanoma. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Multi-analytical techniques for the study of pre-Columbian mummies and related funerary materials

Due to a paucity of original written information, we base our knowledge of the pre-Columbian civilizations of Latin America on archaeological and archaeometric analysis. Particularly, the analytical study of funerary materials collected by conquerors in historical times and archaeologists nowadays during their travels and expeditions contributes to a better understanding of religious practices and social organisation. In the present study, a multi-analytical approach is presented which was used for the characterisation of red and blue organic dyes, inorganic pigments and embalming materials in various archaeological finds from the necropolis of Ancòn (Peru). These included the funerary clothes belonging to a set of three mummies, dated between the 11th and the 13th century AD. Chromatographic and spectrometric techniques were used: high performance liquid chromatography with UV-Visible detector (HPLC-UV-Vis) for identifying organic dyes, scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (SEM-EDX) for recognising pigments, and gas chromatography with mass spectrometric detection (GC/MS) for analysing organic embalming materials. This multi-analytical approach enabled us to characterise a range of materials. The presence of red anthraquinoid dyes and blue indigoid ones was assessed, although it was not always possible to identify the original source with certainty. Cinnabar was identified as the colouring material applied to one mummy's hair. The molecular markers of conifer resin were detected in the bandages. The analytical results highlighted the use of a number of hitherto unknown dyes and embalming materials in Peruvian funerary rituals.     

Persistence and decay of the intestinal microbiota's DNA in glacier mummies from the Alps

The study of the DNA of ancient microorganisms in human remains represents one of the newest and most promising branches of molecular archaeoanthropology. Despite the growing number of papers addressing this subject, however, the analysis of ancient bacterial DNA is still a contentious issue. The indigenous microbiota of the gastrointestinal tract of man represents a community characterized by relative constancy in species composition and proportion. As a model system, we studied the preservation of the intestinal microbiota DNA in two naturally freeze-dried human mummies found on the Alps. This kind of mummy is an ideal subject for ancient DNA investigations. The first is a male body historically dated 1918 A.D. while the second is the famous Tyrolean Iceman (3.350–3.100 B.C.). The screening of bacterial 16S rRNA gene libraries from colon samples of the two mummies (49 clones for the 1918 mummy, 119 clones for the Iceman) showed that the characteristic composition of the intestinal microbiota of man (Alpha-, Beta-, Gammaproteobacteria, Bacteroides, Clostridia) is still kept in the library from the recent mummy while the Iceman's library is almost entirely composed by the DNA of clostridia. Comparison of the intestinal data with those from the literature describing the screening of 16S rRNA gene libraries from other parts of the Iceman's body and from permafrost specimens indicates that the changes in library composition may partly be attributed to the proliferation of clostridia inside the corpses, as described in forensic literature, and partly to the differential persistence of the DNA of gram-negative bacteria and endospore-former low-GC gram-positive bacteria. The present results contribute to the issue of the authentication of claims of pathogen DNA identification in archaeological human remains.     

Osteopathological findings in mummified baboons from ancient Egypt

We present the pathological findings in a historic population of 82 baboon mummies recovered from the animal sanctuary of Tuna-el-Gebel in Egypt, in which we were able to demonstrate a high prevalence of disease. In almost 20 per cent of the baboons, signs were present of chronic malnutrition causing bowing and shortening of the long bones. A further 15 per cent of the animals revealed features of chronic joint or vertebral deformities suggesting poor living conditions in their cages. There were three cases of post-traumatic fractures, three of haematogenous osteomyelitis, one individual showed osteoporosis and one hyperostosis of the scapula of uncertain origin. Additionally, we found one tumour of the pelvic bones with features, which might be attributable to an aggressive osteoblastoma or an osteosarcoma. Our findings clearly demonstrate the high rate of bone abnormalities and the wide spectrum of diseases encountered in Egyptian baboon mummies. These observations contribute significantly to our understanding of the life of ancient Egyptian baboons and particularly to their living conditions.     

托勒密彩绘装饰与罗马彩绘装饰的比较实例：埃及图那-艾尔-葛贝尔的动物图案

2007年春天开罗大学和慕尼黑大学在Tunael—Gebel联合发掘,发现一个原始的罗马坟墓有一石顶,其形式如同金字塔,命名源于希腊某一铭文。这一小石灰石墓葬包含未发生变化的埃及埋葬风格。两个沉重的石灰和镀金木乃伊被安置于两个木棺中,其中一个有一木制锦缎屋顶。该木乃伊有五彩缤纷的玻璃镶嵌,双方的床都展示着华丽的宗教仪式场景色绘画ajoure-work（这些图像被木板分割）。部分埃及和希腊的70个护身符挂在床上,用石灰制成并刷成绿色。两个石灰雕像伊希斯（高38cm）被置于头部附近。雕像是利用周围的木桩加工成型的,然后涂上颜色。它们是一个明显的混合风格的实例。它们被加工成一个典型的希腊姿势,但仍然有一埃及背景。在传统的老埃及,光谱中的每一道颜色有特定象征意义。通过它可以读出背景的循环往复变化。例如,颜色变化从红色（祭品／敌人）-白（天狼星的位置）-黑色（看不见的东西）-绿色（再生）再次到地球上五彩缤纷的形式。这一统一已经在罗马时代瓦解。新的颜色如粉色的出现,白色王冠上画的黄色等等。埃及的象征意义似乎完全消失在罗马新的墓葬彩色装饰上。     

Genes, language, and culture: an example from the tarim basin

Summary. The Tarim Basin ‘mummies’ of western China continue to fascinate scholars and the general public alike due to their ‘Caucasoid’ features, well‐preserved material culture, and putative ‘European’ origins. However, there have been some uncritical efforts to link these archaeological cultures to those of other ancient Eurasian groups (e.g. the Celts) by applying syllogistic reasoning to multi‐disciplinary evidence. In an attempt to provide a more cautious synthesis of the prehistory of the Tarim Basin, this paper will briefly summarize the archaeological, physical, and linguistic evidence that has been used to model human settlement of this region. These data will then be related to recent molecular anthropology research on modern populations of Central Asia, focusing especially on the Uighur in relation to their neighbours. While the genetic history of the modern peoples of a particular region is not necessarily related to their prehistoric antecedents, it is argued that the Tarim Basin experienced a surprising cultural and biological continuity despite immigration from both east and west into Xinjiang Province. This conclusion has a number of possible political ramifications in the present day that must be addressed in future literature on the subject.     

Structural stability of hair over three thousand years

Ten hair samples of Copts from the 8th–10th century AD obtained during the 1963–1964 excavation campaign in the district of Sayala, and 11 hair samples of Egyptian mummies dated to the 18th–25th dynasty were examined for their structural properties compared with recent hair samples. Structural comparison was performed using X-ray diffraction and infra-red spectroscopy. Using the attenuated total reflection technique, which allows multiple reflection infra-red spectroscopy on native hair, we were able to reveal the structural integrity of the ancient hair samples. X-ray diffraction studies using Cr-alpha radiation confirmed the infra-red results. Signs of dehydration could be observed but no conformational changes, indicating the structural stability of hair protein over thousands of years.