The discovery of anti-epileptic drugs

The general history of epilepsy is well documented, there being detailed accounts from ancient times in Babylonia (Wilson et al., 1990), ancient India (Bharucha & Bharucha, 1989), and China (Lai & Lai, 1991), up until the end of the 19th century (Tempkin, 1971). But relatively little has been written about its medical treatment, (Melville, 1982). The subject of this article is the history of potassium bromide, phenobarbitone and phenytoin, how their use in epilepsy was discovered, and in particular the surprisingly large part played by chance, luck and serendipity, in their introduction to the pharmacopaeia. The advance in this field has been one of sudden leaps forward, followed by periods of apparent inactivity, until the next discovery emerged, a pattern repeated many times, since medical treatment of epilepsy began with potassium bromide in 1857, until the introduction of vigabatrin in 1990.     

COMPOSITIONAL INHOMOGENEITY OF SEDIMENTS AND ITS POTENTIAL EFFECTS ON DOSE RATE ESTIMATION FOR ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE DATING OF TOOTH ENAMEL

We present results of particle size and radioactivity analyses of sediment samples collected from five sites with different burial environments. The uranium, thorium and potassium concentrations in the five sample sets are shown to vary with particle size. The potential effects of the observed size-dependent variations on electron spin resonance (ESR) dating of tooth enamel are assessed using two hypothetical models. Our results show that any bias to relatively fine fractions could result in a significant overestimation of the total environmental dose rate, leading to an underestimation of the calculated ESR age.     

THERMOLUMINESCENCE DATING OF POTTERY: AN ASSESSMENT OF THE DOSE-RATE FROM RUBIDIUM

The naturally occurring radioisotope ⁸⁷Rb makes a small contribution to the total dose-rate. Assuming an average potassium:rubidium ratio of 200:1 the contribution is estimated at 2.9% of the B dose-rate From potassium. The effect will be negligible in quartz inclusion dating because of the strong attenuation of the B- emission from ⁸⁷Rb. In fine-grain dating the omission of the ⁸⁷Rb contribution will overestimate the age of a pottery sherd by not more than 2% and this is regarded as of minor importance when the total error in the technique is at least 15%.     

Soluble Salts Amplify the Effect of Small Heterogeneities in the Structure of Porous Building Materials During Drying

Salt crystallization is a major cause of degradation in old buildings. One of the issues that stills need clarification is regarding the influence of the salts on the capillary absorption and subsequent drying of porous building materials. This article presents an experimental study that included capillary absorption and evaporative drying tests on two types of material (lime mortar and ceramic brick) using pure water or saturated solutions of six salts (sodium chloride, sodium sulfate, sodium nitrate, sodium carbonate, potassium nitrate, or potassium carbonate). The results of capillary absorption agree only roughly with the linear relationship, predicted by theory, between sorptivity and the square root of the ratio between viscosity η and surface tension σ of the solution (σ/η)^1/2. This poor agreement is probably due to material heterogeneity. The drying dynamics was regular and showed little dispersion between specimens, but only for the uncontaminated materials. Indeed, the drying dynamics of the salt contaminated materials was often irregular or diverged among similar specimens, and the same happened with their salt decay patterns. The main conclusion is that soluble salts can amplify the effects on drying of the small structural heterogeneities that porous building materials normally depict.     

PHYSICO‐CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THE ACQUALADRONE ROSTRUM

The archaeological discovery of the Acqualadrone rostrum (an offensive naval weapon mounted on the prow at the waterline), off the Italian coast near Messina in 2008, has led to the need for scientific research in order to plan the conservation treatment of this artefact. The discovery is exceptional because of the presence of a wooden section from the original ship. This paper describes the physico‐chemical characterization of a metallic and two wooden samples by inductively coupled plasma – optical emission spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma – mass spectrometry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, ¹³C {¹H} cross‐polarization magic angle spinning NMR spectroscopy, energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy, gas chromatography – mass spectrometry and X‐ray diffraction. The results reveal the use of leaded bronze (Cu, 70%; Pb, 20%; Sn, 10%) in the manufacturing process of the alloy and the use of lead whose isotopic composition is referable to either Spanish or Cypriot mines. The analysis of the results relating to the wooden samples indicates their different state of preservation and, at least in some places, the spreading of caulking on the wood, probably using a vegetable resin.     

Sputniks,explorers and propaganda: The discovery of the earth's radiation belts 1

Abstract

The most important scientific discovery of the early space era ‐ the 1958 discovery of the radiation belts of the Earth ‐ was made in the context of Cold War rivalry between the USSR and the USA. The paper uses previously unavailable archival records to reconstruct the relative contributions of American and Soviet researchers and their interations during the process of discovery. The former discovered what is now known as the inner radiation belt, while the latter observed the outer radiation belt and gradually came to realize the existence of two distinctively different zones of radiation. The uses of science for the purposes of Cold War political propaganda affected the behavior of scientists and led to the misrepresentation of the events in mass media.     

AN UPPER PALAEOLITHIC FLINT AND CHERT ASSEMBLAGE FROM HOWBURN FARM,SOUTH LANARKSHIRE,SCOTLAND: FIRST RESULTS

This paper describes the discovery of the first open‐air Upper Palaeolithic site to be found in Scotland, at Howburn, near Biggar in South Lanarkshire. An account is given of the composition and distribution of the lithic assemblage, which is discussed in terms of its British and north‐west European context. Provisional parallels drawn are with the Late Hamburgian (Havelte) sites and assemblages of southern Scandinavia, northern Germany and the Netherlands. There is no absolute dating evidence for the site, but an age in the region of 12,000 ¹⁴C yr BP, towards the end of the earlier (Bølling) Lateglacial Interstadial stage, is proposed on the basis of the lithic artefacts.     

The Archaeological Heritage of the Jerusalem Protestant Cemetery on Mount Zion

Abstract

Ever since the purchase of land in 1848 for the establishment of the Jerusalem Protestant Cemetery on Mount Zion, the south-western brow of the hill has attracted the attention of scholars. Initiated by the discovery of a series of rock-hewn steps in a scarp that was traced for over 200 metres and thought to be the line of Jerusalem's ancient fortifications, archaeological investigation within the confines of the cemetery continued for some 150 years. In this paper, the results of a century and a half of excavations are summarized and synthesized, providing important evidence regarding the development and chronology of Jerusalem's fortifications from the Iron Age to the Ayyubid Period. Also, the idea of an Essene Quarter on Mount Zion during the Second Temple Period, based on the discovery of a gate believed to be Josephus' 'Gate of the Essenes', is re-examined in light of the rest of the archaeological evidence from the cemetery.     

Isotopic Reconstruction of the Late Longshan Period (ca. 4200–3900 BP) Dietary Complexity before the Onset of State‐Level Societies at the Wadian Site in the Ying River Valley,Central Plains,China

During the late Longshan period (ca. 4200–3900 BP) settlements on the Central Plains of China underwent a diversification in food production technologies, which set the stage for rapid economic and social development. The introduction of novel domesticates such as rice, wheat, cattle, and sheep not only provided more food choices, but also changed ideas concerning land use, farming techniques, and the use and mobilization of large scale labor forces. To better understand the contribution that these new dietary items and practices made to shaping the late Longshan period societies, a stable isotope ratio study of humans (n = 12) and animals (n = 42) was conducted at the late Longshan period site of Wadian. The human δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values are clustered into two distinct groups. One group of nine individuals (δ¹³C = −9.9 ± 0.7‰; δ¹⁵N = 7.5 ± 0.5‰) had a predominately C₄ diet based on millet grains with little protein input from the domestic animals. The other group of three individuals (δ¹³C = −14.3 ± 0.8‰; δ¹⁵N = 10.2 ± 0.3‰) had a mixed C₃/C₄ diet of millets and rice and were consuming sheep and cattle. The animals also displayed dietary diversity with the pigs (δ¹³C = −11.3 ± 2.5‰; δ¹⁵N = 6.9 ± 1.0‰, n = 10) and dogs (δ¹³C = −10.1 ± 1.0‰; δ¹⁵N = 7.2 ± 1.1‰, n = 7) having mostly a C₄ plant based diet (millets). In contrast, the cattle (δ¹³C = −12.8 ± 2.1‰; δ¹⁵N = 7.6 ± 0.7‰, n = 9), sheep (δ¹³C = −16.7 ± 0.9‰; δ¹⁵N = 7.6 ± 0.1‰, n = 2), and cervids (δ¹³C = −20.8 ± 0.9‰; δ¹⁵N = 5.0 ± 1.2‰, n = 10) had diets with a greater contribution from C₃ sources such as rice and wild plants. The discovery that humans and animals had different subsistence patterns indicates dietary complexity at Wadian and that rice agriculture, and cattle and sheep husbandry practices were already an important part of the local economy by the late Longshan period in the southern region of the Central Plains of China. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Opening and Closing Sequences of the Battle of Jutland 1916 Re‐examined: archaeological investigations of the wrecks of HMS Indefatigable and SMS V4

This paper presents the findings from surveys carried out in March 2016 of two wrecks sunk during the Battle of Jutland. The remains of HMS Indefatigable had previously only been partially understood. SMS V4, was found and surveyed for the first time. They represent the first and last ships sunk and allow the timings of the opening and closing of the battle to be established. In the case of HMS Indefatigable, the discovery that the ship broke in two, seemingly unnoticed, substantially revises the narrative of the opening minutes of the battle.     

THE CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY AND GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF AN ALLUVIAL GEOARCHIVE: COMPARATIVE OSL AND AMS 14C DATING FROM GREECE*

The Basin of Phlious in southern Greece is known for its thick colluvial and alluvial deposits from the Holocene. It offers a good opportunity to reconstruct the history of Holocene soil erosion and its interaction with historical farming activities. In this study, we present new results based on optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating from the Basin of Phlious. The comparison between OSL and ¹⁴C AMS ages shows good agreement, and demonstrates the need for the detection of insufficiently bleached OSL samples in order to obtain accurate results. The discovery of a Neolithic site, buried under thick alluvial deposits, confirms the hitherto postulated Neolithic human impact on the landscape.     

Recent Excavation and Recording at the New Neolithic Rock Art Site of Vallée Aux Noirs,Buthiers (Seine‐et‐Marne,France)

Following the exceptional discovery of Neolithic engravings on a boulder at Vallée aux Noirs in the Fontainebleau forest, south of Paris, an excavation trench was opened in order to access the buried part of the decorated rock panel and explore the stratigraphic context of the artwork. A palaeosol was found two metres below the modern ground level, underneath multiple layers of sterile sandy soil forming a very compact sequence from which only one archaeological artefact was recovered – an Iron Age fibula (c.200–300 BC). Dating of the palaeosol was attempted through two different methods: AMS dates from charcoal suggest a significant span from the Early Bronze Age to the Iron Age, while two more consistent OSL dates point to formation of the palaeosol during the Late Neolithic (3500–3000 cal BC). The entire engraved rock surface (16 m²), including its buried part, was fully recorded. Four main semiotic groups were identified: a typical fifth‐millennium crook‐hafted axe with a ring, two boats with steering oars, and a central, very tall human figure dominating the composition from its 3.5‐metre height.     

书画修复中可替代明矾的施胶沉淀剂筛选研究

明矾是我国传统书画修复装裱中一种极其重要的材料,但明矾水解析出酸,会促使纸张纤维素发生酸性水解。研究对比了明矾和水解后具有高阳离子电荷的6种沉淀剂对宣纸施胶前后的pH值、疏水性、色差、力学性能变化和对国画颜料的固色效果,利用扫描电镜(SEM)和衰减全反射傅里叶变换红外光谱(ATR-FTIR)测试宣纸施胶后的化学键合状况(包括沉淀剂与胶料、纤维),结合高场~(27)Al核磁共振波谱(~(27)Al-NMR)测试了纸张施胶中铝盐沉淀剂的水解聚合形态,及其与胶料混合后对宣纸表面化学形态变化的影响。结果表明,白色聚合氯化铝(PAC)施胶宣纸pH值可达到7以上,作为沉淀剂的施胶液处理后的宣纸具有一定的疏水性,湿热老化过程中具有较高的耐折度和抗张强度,色差变化小,对颜料固色效果好。SEM分析表明,白色PAC可使胶料分布较均匀,能在一定程度上包覆、填充宣纸纤维和孔隙。~(27)Al-NMR、ATR-FTIR及固化性能分析表明,PAC多核铝[AlO_4Al_(12)(OH)_(24)(H_2O)_(12)]~(7+)(Al_(13))含量相对较高,对明胶也具有促干剂作用,可和胶料产生键合,形成网状络合物,适合替代明矾作为施胶沉淀剂。     

The earliest evidence of domesticated wheat in the Crimea at Chalcolithic Ardych-Burun

Abstract

This paper reports the discovery of the earliest evidence of domesticated wheat in the Crimean peninsula from the Ardych-Burun shell midden site, Ukraine. The Ardych-Burun site dates to middle of the 4th millennium cal b.c. For the first time, the chronology of a Ukrainian Chalcolithic period site has been established through direct radiocarbon dating of cereal grains retrieved from it. This discovery allows for a wider discussion of the chronology and geographical origins of domesticated plant species in Ukraine and the role the Caucasian corridor may have played in the spread of agriculture into eastern Europe. The presence of cereal crops in the southern Crimea enriches our understanding of the subsistence strategies of the coastal population, which was previously linked only with pastoralism, hunting, and the exploitation of marine resources.     

AN ANALYSIS OF THE GEM‐BLUE GLAZE OF YE WANG'S KOJI POTTERY*

Koji pottery is a glazed ceramic art used widely for figurines. In early Taiwan, it was employed in temple construction for decorative purposes. Ye Wang (1826–87) is the first historically documented Koji artist of Taiwan and also the most prominent Koji pottery artist, noted for his modelling and glazing skills. Unfortunately, his unique technique was lost following his death in 1887. In order to provide vital information for ongoing conservation work on Koji pottery, this study analysed the physical and chemical characteristics of Ye Wang's gem‐blue glaze, to discover the glaze formula. DSC combined with the two‐thirds rule revealed that the firing temperature of Ye Wang's works of art was most probably around 878–923°C. EPMA revealed that the gem‐blue glaze has high alkali levels, and belongs to the PbO–K₂O–B₂O₃–Na₂O–SiO₂ system, deriving its unique colour from copper, iron, manganese and cobalt. This study found high potassium levels in the gem‐blue glaze, which are generally a characteristic of traditional Chinese glazes. In addition, a unique discovery of boron, commonly used in famille rose, was also identified in the glaze. By comparing spectra of historical and reconstructed glazes and adjusting the proportion of chromophoric elements, this study found a glazing formula with colours close to those of Ye Wang's gem‐blue glaze.     

胶矾水在熟化书画用宣纸中的应用机理探究

为了揭示胶矾水熟化书画用宣纸的科学内涵,通过胶矾水固化性能、墨滴晕散实验揭示明矾在胶料固化及抗墨滴晕散中所起到的作用。利用扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、高场~(27)Al核磁共振波谱(~(27)Al-NMR)和红外光谱(ATR-FTIR)研究胶与矾在熟化宣纸时各自的作用及协同效应。最后,通过湿热老化实验探讨明矾的负面影响。结果表明:1)明矾作为促干剂加速了胶水凝聚固化;作为软化剂增加了胶料弹性。2)明矾也可作为助留剂,起到墨滴助留作用。施加胶矾水的宣纸抗墨滴晕散性能优于单纯的胶水或矾水;有胶无矾时,墨迹浮在纸上,存在大量微孔,易漏墨。3)SEM、~(27)Al-NMR和FTIR分析表明,胶和矾在提高宣纸憎水性及抗墨滴晕散性能方面可起到协同作用。明矾以单核物Al(H_2O)_6~(3+)、AlSO_4~+,高聚物Al_(30)([Al_(30)O_8(OH)_(56)(H_2O)_(24)]~(18+))等形式与明胶的羟基或羧基键合,形成的紧密网络结构加强了胶料的交联,提高了胶料的抗水性。同时,铝离子可起到桥联作用,将带负电的明胶粒子转化为带正电的明胶粒子,促使明胶微粒沉淀在带负电的纤维表面。4)明矾用量越大,湿热老化后酸性越强,纸张越脆,严重威胁纸张的寿命。因此,传统胶矾水在熟化纸张时可起到促干剂、软化剂及助留剂的功能,但用量越大,纸张酸化越严重,建议研发可替代胶矾水的新一代施胶剂。     

New age constraints for hominid footprints found on Jeju Island,South Korea

In 2004 numerous hominid footprints, along with diverse animal footprints, were found in the Late Quaternary strata of Jeju Island, South Korea. However, the age of the sediments in which the footprints were found is still controversial. Previous age estimates included radiocarbon ages of ca. 15,000 yr BP (Late Pleistocene) and quartz optically stimulated luminescence ages of ca. 7000 yr BP (mid-Holocene). In this study we report on 11 AMS ¹⁴C dating results from a new set of samples collected from the footprint-bearing strata and from associated sediments. Despite some variations and age reversal, all samples collected from the footprint-bearing strata yielded ¹⁴C ages of late Pleistocene. These ages are comparable with previous radiocarbon dating results. Furthermore, the presence of the proboscidean footprints attributable to woolly mammoths in the footprint-bearing strata supports the radiocarbon dating results. Based on the new radiocarbon dates and the presence of the alleged mammoth footprints, the age of the hominid footprints found at Jeju Island is thought to be late Pleistocene (about 19,000–25,000 cal yr BP). Therefore, this is the second discovery of hominid footprints dated to the Pleistocene age in Asia, and the first to be discovered in Korea.     

Diagenesis in bone and enamel apatite carbonate; the potential of density separation to assess the original composition

This paper presents a new approach to the isotopic measurement of diagenetically altered archaeological bone apatite carbonate. We describe how the existing differential dissolution method may be combined with a new approach to remove diagenetically reformed material on the basis of its greater specific gravity. We show that heavier, more diagenetically altered fraction has a higher (altered) δ¹³C and also increased crystallinity within one individual. In addition, we proposed one potential tool to check the validity of bone carbonate by comparing bone collagen, enamel carbonate and bone carbonate values of δ¹³C and radiocarbon content from the same individual. In the case of Danebury cattle, we estimated the biogenic δ¹³C_apa value for DC83 and DC89, although it is still difficult to overcome diagenesis in order to meet the expected value, which is shown to be 1.9‰ (DC83) and 3.5‰ (DC89).     

Westminster in 1712: A Description by Samuel Molyneux

Between 21 June and 3 July 1712 the Spectator published 11 thematically-linked essays entitled ‘the Pleasures of the Imagination’. ¹ For the middle classes such irresistible prose reinforced the case for a moral, philosophical and ideological approach towards art, architecture, history, literature and nature – attitudes that we today would regard as enlightened. However, amongst the well-educated elite such thoughts had long existed. Bonding high-art with power, wealthy connoisseurs forged an obsessive passion for collecting artworks and antiquities and, as a consequence, became duty bound to display their collections to interested third parties. One such connoisseur was Charles Montagu (1661–1715), later earl of Halifax, ² whose celebrated collection was kept in his grace-and-favour apartments in the Palace of Westminster. Of those who saw his collection only one published account was thought to have survived, that of William Nicolson, bishop of Carlisle. ³ Yet, the recent discovery of a copybook of letters originally written by the 23-year-old antiquarian, Samuel Molyneux, later secretary to the prince of Wales, describes not only a rare and privileged visit to Lord Halifax's apartments but also a first-hand account of his tour around the Palace of Westminster in December 1712.