A Measurement Theory for Time Geography

Hägerstrand's time geography is a powerful conceptual framework for understanding constraints on human activity participation in space and time. However, rigorous, analytical definitions of basic time geography entities and relationships do not exist. This limits abilities to make statements about error and uncertainty in time geographic measurement and analysis. It also compromises comparison among different time geographic analyses and the development of standard time geographic computational tools. The time geographic measurement theory in this article consists of analytical formulations for basic time geography entities and relations, specifically, the space–time path, prism, composite path-prisms, stations, bundling, and intersections. The definitions have arbitrary spatial and temporal resolutions and are explicit with respect to informational assumptions: there are clear distinctions between measured and inferred components of each entity or relation. They are also general to n- dimensional space rather than the strict two-dimensional space of classical time geography. Algebraic solutions are available for one or two spatial dimensions, while numeric (but tractable) solutions are required for some entities and relations in higher dimensional space.     

Surveying Subjective Phenomena: A Review Essay

Abstract

The geographic perspective on human behavior emphasizes the notion of context. Context suggests that human behavior is partly determined by the place in which individuals and groups act, and in turn these actions re-create places. It follows that an element of history is the contextual setting of activity. Spatial statistics are introduced as a tool for modeling context in historical studies. Spatial dependence serves to operationalize the specificity of place and the diffusion of processes between places. Spatial heterogeneity serves to operationalize the idea that behavior is regionally specific rather than uniform across space. Both spatial dependence and spatial heterogeneity are included in spatial regression models. A spatial statistical analysis of the Nazi Party vote in Bavaria between 1928 and 1932 is adopted to illustrate the argument.     

劳工地理研究新进展评述

在经济地理学的研究中,劳工常常被看作是与自然资源、资金、技术等同类的经济要素,只重视劳动成本,忽视了劳工作为社会活动主要参与者的角色。近年来,劳工地理研究取得了长足的进展,弥补了传统地理学研究的不足。全球化背景下的工人运动、劳工组织和地方劳工控制体制,劳工市场的空间分割,不同政治、经济和文化背景下的农区劳工地方化逐渐成为劳工地理的重要研究方向。     

An Introduction to Spatial Discounting

Research on the valuation of environmental externalities shows that decision makers tend to discount not only over time but across space. Just as time discounting has implications for intergenerational equity, geographical or spatial discounting has implications for intragenerational equity. Similarly, just as positive time discount rates are warranted by positive net rates of growth of the capital stock, positive spatial discount rates may be warranted by the fact that enviironmental (or other external effects of economic activity are diffused at positive rates. This paper introduces the notion of spatial discounting and explores its welfare implications through a simple diffusion model.     

The Pluralities of Black Geographies

This paper seeks to spur conversations around the inherent pluralities found within Black Geographies. While analyses of Black Geographies have provided important reflections on the spatial imaginaries and practices of Black populations, less attention has been paid to the differences found among Black geographical expressions. This piece therefore seeks to draw out the ways in which Black people uniquely conceive of space by highlighting the distinctions present within different Black social movements. The authors explore the spatial politics of the Universal Negro Improvement Association, the Black Panther Party for Self‐Defense, and the Provisional Government of the Republic of New Afrika to argue that while these three movements all attempted to create spaces of Black self‐determination, they did so with distinct spatial aspirations and concrete politics. The authors argue that recognising and accounting for the pluralities of Black spatial creation is necessary for realising more just geographies.     

Investigating the Influence of Spatial and Temporal Granularities on Agent‐Based Modeling

Epidemic agent‐based models (ABMs) simulate individuals in artificial societies that are capable of movement, interaction, and transmitting disease among themselves. ABMs have been used to study the spread of disease at various spatial and temporal scales ranging from small communities to the world, over days, months, and years. The representations of space and time often vary between different epidemic ABMs and can be influenced by factors such as the size of a modeled population, computational requirements, population environments, and disease‐related data. The influence that the representations of space and time have on epidemic ABMs is difficult to assess. Here we show that the finest representations of space and time—termed spatial and temporal granularities (STGs)—in a parsimonious ABM affect speed, intensity, and spatial spread of a synthetic disease. Specifically, we found disease spread faster and more intensely as spatial granularity is coarsened, whereas disease spread slower and less intensely as temporal granularity is coarsened in a parsimonious ABM. Our study is the first to use the same epidemic ABM to examine the influence of STGs. Our results demonstrate that STGs influence ABM dynamics including early disease burnout and that an interrelationship exists between the coarsening of STGs and the speed and intensity at which disease spreads. Our parsimonious ABM is extended based on a structured community model and we found STGs also influence ABM dynamics in a more realistic context that includes hierarchical movement. Broadly, our study serves as a basis for further inquiry toward the influence of space–time representations on more realistic models that include multiscale mobility, routine movements (e.g., commuting), and heterogeneous population distributions.     

Scale-Economy Conditions for Spatial Variation in Farm Size

Given the usual neoclassical assumptions of economic rationality, perfect competition, long-term spatial equilibrium, a Thunian context, and perfectly divisible labor and capital, this paper expresses economies of scale in farming in terms of the yield derived from a given level of intensity. If yield increases as farm scale increases, there are economies of scale. If yield decreases, there are diseconomies of scale. The literature on scale economies in agriculture suggests that scale economies accrue from increases in capital inputs, but diseconomies occur as a result of increases in farm area. The models of the spatial structure of agriculture, with farm size included, show the following: 1. Unless there are economies of scale giving way to diseconomies of scale with increases in farm size, no optimal farm area or farm scale can be defined; 2. If the optimal intensity for farming does not vary over space, the optimal farm scale or area should be constant over space; 3. If intensity varies spatially, and if the optimal economies of scale are a function of area only, farm areas should not vary spatially, and sales volume per farm should increase as market access and fertility increase; 4. It is only if intensity varies spatially and optimal scale economies are a function of both area and total quantities of nonland inputs per farm that farm area should increase as distance to market increases or fertility decreases. In this last case, quantities of nonland inputs per farm should also decrease, and usually sales volume per farm should decrease also.     

线上和线下生活服务设施可达性及其协调关系——以生鲜果蔬店铺为例

作为智慧城市的重要组成部分,“新零售”得到蓬勃发展,提供当日配送服务的“新零售”深刻影响了城市生活服务的可获取性和时空可达性。本文以南京中心城区为例,运用两步移动搜索法、耦合协调度模型等方法,探究提供当日配送生鲜果蔬服务的店铺和传统生鲜果蔬实体店空间分布特征,分析线上和线下生鲜果蔬店铺的可达性及空间协调关系。研究发现,线上生活服务遵循技术扩散假说,强化了中心城区的生活服务集聚,同时线上生活服务集聚和可达性仍受实体地理空间约束;线上生活服务有悖于效率假说,对传统生活服务的空间分异具有加强作用,整体上没有提高生活服务的供给效率和空间公平性。研究结果可为新零售影响下城市生活服务设施的配置优化提供科学依据。     

A Multipopulation Comparison of the Diffusion of Public Organizations and Policies across Space and Time

This study examined the longitudinal spatial diffusion of state government policies and their related implementation organizations in the American states. The impact of coercive, institutional, and competitive processes on policy and state agency adoption were considered, as well as how aspects of the underlying policy can impact the degree of spatial diffusion. The rises of 27 different policy populations were analyzed over time, each representing not only a different policy form but a distinct implementation organization.
The policy adoption/spatial diffusion relationship across all populations was examined and results showed that the degree of spatial diffusion varied greatly. Analysis of potential relationship moderators indicated that federal impetus (coercive processes) led to an absence of spatial diffusion. Policies with an institutional basis also showed an absence of spatial diffusion while competition-based policies diffused spatially.     

GENERAL EQUILIBRIUM OF SPATIAL PRODUCT AND LABOR MARKETS*

ABSTRACT A simple general equilibrium model relates spatial product markets and spatial labor markets. The firm is treated as being a spatial monopolist or as a Löschian competitor in the output market and as a spatial monopsonist in the labor market. Derived free spatial demand and free regional labor supply are defined, and their properties examined. The model provides the framework for analyzing the impact of a technological improvement in labor productivity on the structure of the spatial markets. The impact of entry on spatial labor supply is an important determinant of whether or not entry lowers wages and raises output prices. Unlike the spaceless competitive paradigm, zero-profit long-run equilibrium can occur in a space economy under conditions of increasing returns to scale.     

Quantifying Animal Trajectories Using Spatial Aggregation and Sequence Analysis: A Case Study of Differentiating Trajectories of Multiple Species

The increasing availability of telemetry data with high spatial and temporal resolution promises to greatly advance scientific understandings of the movement patterns of individual organisms across space and time. The amount of data provided by such methods, however, can be challenging to analyze and interpret. In this study, we present a new approach for analyzing animal movements that aggregates telemetry locations into spatial clusters and extracts the information from sequences formed by individuals passing through these spatial clusters. We applied this integrated approach of spatial aggregation and sequence analysis to quantify and compare trajectories of cattle (Bos taurus), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), and elk (Cervus elaphus) tracked by automated telemetry at the Starkey Experimental Forest and Range in northeastern Oregon, USA. Our approach effectively differentiated movement patterns of the three species. It provides a useful mean of quantifying movement patterns of species in a landscape.     

Analyzing the Spatial Dynamics of Deforestation in Brazilian Amazon

Historically, development in Brazilian Amazon was promoted by permits of deforestation under soft territory control or supervision. However, due to the importance of this biome for biodiversity and ecosystem balance in a global perspective, Brazilian's government has tightened deforestation control. This work investigates the spatial pattern of deforestation in a cross‐section and time perspective using global and local spatial data analysis. Global results indicate the existence of high spatial correlation and that deforestation holds concentrated across space, despite the efficacy of policy mechanisms adopted for controlling and reducing the level of deforestation in Legal Amazon. Furthermore, local results support the hypothesis of high spillover effects. Considering the spatial analysis results, we highlight some implications for policy design aiming deforestation control.     

Interpreting Spatial Economic Structure and Spatial Multipliers: Three Perspectives

The measurement and interpretation of spatial economic structure have presented many problems for analysts. The notion of a spatial multiplier has received even less formal attention; part of the motivation for this paper is the examination of the degree to which sectoral decomposition analysis might prove useful in illuminating the paths of interaction across space that are associated with changes in exogenous activity levels. In this paper, we present three perspectives that examine spatial structure in the context of an aggregated interregional social accounting matrix for Bangladesh. These perspectives examine structure at the micro-, meso-, and macrolevels and are interpreted with the assistance of several alternative methods, including structural path analysis, the field of influence, the superposition principle, multiregional feedback loop analysis, and the Matrioshka Principle; the results are interpreted analytically and cartographically. Some attention is also devoted to the formulation of a general approach to spatial multipliers. It is shown that the structure of flows and the structure of influence reveal patterns that, taken together, provide important insights into an understanding of structure and may prove to form the basis for the eventual formal presentation of the spatial multiplier.     

The Northeast Asian - Northwest American Microblade Tradition (NANAMT)

Abstract

In 1935, N. C. Nelson raised the possibility of a prehistoric trans-Beringian migration. His hypothesis was unique in that it was based upon specific artifactual evidence. New data from northern British Columbia and comparative technotypological analysis of microblade core production provide additional support for Nelson's hypothesis. It is possible to recognize a Northeast Asian-Northwest American Microblade Tradition (NANAMT) and to define several subtraditions. The distribution of NANAMT manifestations through space and time indicate the spread of the tradition from its presumed origin in southern Siberia/northern China to other parts of Asia and across Beringia to the New World.

The “spread” of the culture complex may have been brought about through diffusion, migration, or both. In evolutionary terms, it seems to be the Advanced Palaeolithic-Mesolithic northeast Asian equivalent of southwest Asia's microlithic industries.     

The present tense of Afghanistan: accounting for space,time and gender in processes of militarisation

Based on ethnographic research among women married to servicemen, this article explores the diffusion of militarisation across time as well as social space. The study setting is a garrison town in Germany during the deployment of women's husbands to Afghanistan. Rather than prioritising the grand narratives of linear time prevalent in IR and military history, however, this article takes into account cyclical and everyday modes of temporality that have traditionally been associated (and undervalued) as feminised ‘zones’, including reproduction, the domestic sphere and local social space. The article explores the temporal register of an operational tour and demonstrates the material, discursive and emotional labour undertaken by military wives in smoothing and converting this rupture into stability through everyday practices. Accounting for the diffusion of militarisation over time as well as space in this way provides further evidence that its causes and effects are intricately gendered.     

Anarchy,Geography and Drift

Abstract: The consumerist economies of the late modern city, in combination with contemporary models of urban policing, operate to close down the public spaces of social life. In response, social groups dedicated to democratic urbanism utilize anarchic tactics of “dis‐organization” and direct action to reopen public space and to revitalize it with unregulated activity. Complicating and animating these spatial conflicts is the issue of drift. On the one hand, consumerist economies and contemporary policing strategies exacerbate urban drift, spawning the very sorts of spatial transgression they seek to control. On the other hand, many of the progressive movements that battle for open space and alternative economic arrangements themselves embrace a culture of drift, and explore drift for its anarchic and progressive potential. In this context drift can usefully be investigated as an emergent form of epistemology, community, and spatial politics.     

中国本土零售连锁超市空间扩张特征与格局研究——以永辉超市为例

连锁超市已经成为中国零售商业的主要经营业态,以中国本土大型零售连锁超市永辉超市为例,从空间扩张模式、扩张格局和区位选择等方面对零售连锁超市空间扩张特征进行研究。结果表明:伴随中国零售市场的发展和零售业的对外开放,永辉超市在1999至2013年15年间空间扩张速度递增,呈现指数型增长态势;空间扩张模式可以归纳为区域深耕式、接触式、跳跃式和复合式扩张四种,经营成熟期以后主要表现为复合式扩张;永辉超市在跨省际空间扩张中进入城市的次序与城市人口规模呈现弱的正相关性,在省域范围内,永辉超市门店的空间扩张具有首位分布趋向特征。     

Building an inclusive peace is an uneven socio-spatial process: Colombia's differential approach

Colombia is struggling to implement what is far and away the world's most inclusive peace accord. As such, it is a useful case for thinking about what peace means, how it means different things to different people, and how to build peace across difference. Geographers widely agree that peace is an ongoing spatial process that varies across time and space, but have paid less attention to how it varies across groups within space. Social inequalities like race, gender, and sexuality are spatialized. They operate in and through space in interlocking ways, and looking at inclusion issues can strengthen understandings of how peace space is made. Attempts to build more inclusive peaces can also be strengthened by understanding and addressing the uneven socio-spatial processes involved.     

Dynamic Models in Space and Time

This paper presents a first‐order autoregressive distributed lag model in both space and time. It is shown that this model encompasses a wide series of simpler models frequently used in the analysis of space‐time data as well as models that better fit the data and have never been used before. A framework is developed to determine which model is the most likely candidate to study space‐time data. As an application, the relationship between the labor force participation rate and the unemployment rate is estimated using regional data of Germany, France, and the United Kingdom derived from Eurostat, 1983–1993.