Urbanization Processes in North Vietnam

The pattern of urbanization of North Vietnam is traced from 1945 through 1960 to 1970. The average contribution of the in-migration component to urban growth was 40 percent from 1945 to 1965, but a slight net out-migration from cities marked the period of American bombings of North Vietnam after 1965. As a result urban population declined from 1.9 million in 1965 to 1.84 million in 1970, while total population of North Vietnam rose from 17.5 to 20 million. Urban growth has been distinguished by rapid rates of growth in large cities, low rates in middle-size cities, and no growth or even decline of population in the small urban places.     

Lyndon Johnson's War? Part 1: Escalation

At the beginning of 1964 there were around 20,000 US military ‘advisers’ in South Vietnam, working alongside the South Vietnamese army in the latter's campaign against the communist guerrillas, led and supplied by the government of North Vietnam. By the summer of 1965 there were 125,000 American troops in the country, with more pledged for future deployment. Most of these were not ‘advisers’, but combat forces openly engaged in fighting the communists. In addition, since March 1965, a sustained American bombing campaign had been waged against targets in North Vietnam. This transformation in the nature of the American commitment to South Vietnam had been brought about by two factors: the continued weakness of South Vietnamese governments as military and civilians struggled for control; and the growing strength and success of the communist guerrillas. South Vietnam was regarded as a vital American interest for two reasons: it was perceived as a test of US resolution throughout the rest of the world; and, following the famous ‘domino theory’, it was believed that the loss of South Vietnam to communism would precipitate the weakening and eventual collapse of other non‐communist states in the region. Although there was opposition to the escalation of the war, both in Congress and the administration, there were also voices notably in the military, who wished to press on further and faster. The administration adopted a middle course, gradually increasing its commitment and continually planning for the next step. Although political motives undoubtedly played a part in this more measured approach—there was a presidential election in November 1964—it is clear that President Johnson was not at all convinced that any policy he chose would save South Vietnam. At the same time, he feared the consequences of withdrawal, both at home and abroad. A deeply insecure man, he allowed himself to be persuaded by his principal advisers, to whom he felt indebted for personal as well as political reasons.     

A Picture and a Protest: Kjartan Slettemark and the Vietnam War

In given circumstances, art can play a crucial role in motivating people to participate in altruistic acts of protest and in initiating the formation of social movements. The story of the most controversial work of art in Norwegian cultural history, the so-called Vietnam Picture from 1965, provides an illuminating illustration of how and why artists and their work can have and have had a significant impact on peace and solidarity movements. The article discusses the qualities of artistic production and its reception that can stimulate and sustain protest. Picasso’s Guernica provides an interesting parallel to the Vietnam Picture, and the two pictures are briefly compared.     

Moyes,Menzies, and the Vietnam War: New Insights Into the Public Correspondence Between the Prime Minister and the Bishops

In March 1965 a group of Anglican bishops signed an open letter to the prime minister of Australia, Sir Robert Menzies, expressing its concerns about the rapid deterioration of the situation in Vietnam. The letter had been composed by the retired Bishop of Armidale, John Stoward Moyes. The bishops urged Menzies to use his influence with the United States Government to ensure that the possibility of a negotiated settlement of the conflict could be explored to the full. The letter, and the prime minister's public response, thrust John Moyes and his episcopal co‐signatories into the centre of a national debate on Vietnam. Following Menzies's brusque reply, Moyes composed a second and more critical open letter. The prime minister then issued a more detailed response one week before he committed Australian combat troops to the Vietnam War. The initiative taken by Bishop Moyes constituted the first major instance of public debate in Australia concerning the wisdom and morality of the government's policy on Vietnam.     

The ‘Most Distinguished Envoy of Peace’: Averell Harriman and the Vietnam War in the Johnson Years

From 1965 to 1969 the eminent diplomat Averell Harriman was at the forefront of US efforts to achieve a negotiated peace in Vietnam, pursuing numerous initiatives with vigour. He grew frustrated and embittered at how, in his view, President Johnson and his advisers were responsible for missing a number of opportunities for peace. However, recent research indicates that Communist attitudes were at least as much a sticking point. Harriman was also keen to enlist Soviet assistance, but it has become clear that Moscow was ambivalent towards engaging wholeheartedly with the peace effort. The article provides a fresh perspective on Harriman's attempts to bring peace in Vietnam, not least through the use of recent research in Communist archives.     

Race and Gender in the United States of America

Books reviewed in this article: Nell Irvin Painter, Sojourner Truth: A Life, a Symbol Ann D. Gordon (ed.), The Selected Papers of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, vol. 1, In the School of Anti‐Slavery 1840‐1866 Ann D. Gordon with Bettye Collier‐Thomas, John H. Bracey, ArleneVoski Avakian and Joyce Avrech Berkman (eds), African AmericanWomen and the Vote 1837‐1965     

BOOK REVIEWS

Books Reviewed in this article: The United States and the Arab World by William R. Polk (Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1965). The Faith of Other Men. By Wilfred Cantwell Smith. The New American Library, New York, 1965, pp. 128. 60 c. A Chronicle of Damascus 1389–1397. By Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Sasrā, translated, edited and annotated by William M. Brinner, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1963, 2 vols. Vol. I, pp. xxix, 344; Vol. II, pp. xvii, 265; plus 2 maps in each vol. $18.00. The Course of Empire: The Arabs and their Successors. By Sir John Glubb. Hodder and Stoughton, 1965, pp. 424. Sufferings in Africa: Captain Riley's Narrative. By James Riley, edited and with an introduction by Gordon H. Evans. New York, Clarkson N. Potter, Inc., 1965. Frontispiece portrait, end-paper maps; pp. xx + 316. $6. ‘Aragic’ for Arabic , p. 261; ‘short’ for shore, p. 15, and a few others. But the original edition itself gives us Chapter VI with the title missing, and Timbuktu, now in the new state of Mali, is listed as ‘Tombucioot.’ P 535. Etymological Dictionary of Harari , by Wolf Leslau. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles (Near Eastern Studies Vol. 1), 1963, xv + 240 pages, $5.00. Had?th Literature, its Origin, Development, Special Features and Criticism. By Dr. Muhammad Zubayr Sidd?q?. Calcutta University Press, 1961, pp. xxviii, 211, six plates. Rs. 15.00. The Pelgrim's Companion in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. By Stewart Perowne. Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1964, pp. 154 (including plans). 2/6. The Fall of Constantinople 1453. By Steven Runciman. (Cambridge University Press, 1965). Die Grenzen dcs Irak: Historische und rechtliche Aspekte des irakischen An-spruchs auf Kuwait und des irakisch-persischen Streites um den Schatt al-Arab. By Ulrich Gehrke and Gustav Kuhn. (Darstellungen zur Auswartigen Politik, edited by Prof. Dr. Herbert Krüger, Hamburg, vol. 2, I-II.) Stuttgart, W. Kohlhammer GmbH, 1963. pp. IX + 352, IV + 112. Nineteenth Century American Schools in the Levant: a Study of Purposes , Rao A. Lindsay, University of Michigan Comparative Education Series, No. 5. American Interest And Policies In The Middle East, 1900—1939. By John A. DeNovo. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1963. 394 pp. plus bibliography and index.     

‘A Haven for Tortured Souls’: Hong Kong in the Vietnam War

The Vietnam War exerted a profound economic and social effect on Hong Kong. Between 1965 and 1970, the British Crown Colony annually hosted about 200,000 US ground and naval personnel on holiday. This influx annually earned Hong Kong about US$300–400 million (in 2012 dollars) and employed thousands of residents working in the colony's service industries. Using English- and Chinese-language archival materials from Hong Kong, the United States, and the United Kingdom, the article examines how US servicemen and the businesses catering to them became contentious issues in local society. Servicemen excited widespread interest, but their misdeeds and their stomping grounds provoked intense anxiety. Hong Kong residents’ ensuing debates exercised the colony's emerging public sphere, from newspaper battles to outspoken unions and neighbourhood associations. In tandem with the more commonly cited Star Ferry Riots of 1966 and the Communist agitations of 1967, US R&R was an essential ingredient in the emergence of a distinctive Hong Kong identity and citizenry during this period. While residents’ objections failed to curb the GIs’ haunts or holidays, Vietnam tourism and its reverberating effects pressed new sectors of Hong Kong people to grasp and articulate their investment as citizens in the territory's future.     

Lyndon Johnson's war? Part 2: from escalation to negotiation

IThis second article on the Johnson administration's policy towards the war in Vietnam, based on published American documents, covers the period from July 1965 to March 1968. Although it is now clear that the Communist forces in Vietnam encountered considerable difficulties as a result of the steadily growing commitment of US ground forces, the Americans encountered difficulties of their own: notably the problem of persuading their South Vietnamese ally to implement what they regarded as the necessary political and military policies; and the increasing criticism of the war at home. The bombing of North Vietnam was a key issue for the administration. While the president's military advisers were continually pressing for further escalation, most of the civilians were sceptical. The latter felt that the bombing was not achieving its principal objective of reducing the flow of men and supplies from North Vietnam into South Vietnam, was unpopular at home and abroad and, if increased, posed serious risks of Chinese and Russian involvement. Although the bombing was temporarily halted or restricted more than once during this period in an attempt to facilitate a negotiated settlement, nothing was achieved. On 1 November 1967 Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara's growing disillusionment with the war prompted him to send a lengthy memorandum to President Johnson arguing for the cessation of the bombing of the North and the stabilization of the American effort in the South. Rejected at the time, this policy was partially implemented as a result of the Communist Tet offensive of February 1968, when countrywide attacks were beaten back after failing to trigger the expected popular uprising against the Americans and the South Vietnamese government, while at the same time producing a surge of hostility to the war in the United States. Three men‐McNamara's successor, Clark Clifford, Secretary of State Dean Rusk and White House aid Harry McPherson‐were largely responsible for persuading President Johnson to accept the fact that the war could not continue on the same basis as before and that de‐escalation was a better option. The president rejected the military's request for a huge increase in the number of US troops and, on 31 March 1968, announced a halt to the bombing north of the 20 th parallel and called for immediate peace talks. He also surprised the nation and his advisers by declaring that he would not run for the presidency in the election due in November 1968, preferring to concentrate on the search for peace during the remainder of his period in office.     

The Development of new Agricultural Lands in North Vietnam in 1961–65

Despite an expansion of the irrigated area in the plains and an increase in rice yields, the food situation in North Vietnam remains strained by a mean annual population growth of 3 percent. In an effort to add to the food supply, the North Vietnamese authorities have favored an expansion of dry-field food crops (sweet potatoes, manioc, corn) in the country's mountain zone. Under this program, one million people migrated during the five-year period 1961–1965 from the densely settled plains to the mountains to join old farm cooperatives, establish new cooperatives, and work in state farms, forestry and craft industries. The movement from the plains to the mountains was reinforced by the American bombing campaign at the end of the five-year period. The mountain development drive has resulted in a slight improvement of the food situation by an 11-percent increase of the cultivated area. However, the mountain cooperatives are poorly supplied with implements and technical know-how, and poor farming practices are promoting erosion.     

Minutes of Meeting June 19

ESKIMOS OF THE NUSHAGAK RIVER. By JAMES W. VAN STONE. University of Washington Press, 1967. Reviewed by W. R. Mead.

AFTER LIVINGSTONE. By DAVID PICTON JONES, n.p., 1968, 35s. Reviewed by E. P. Baker.

DISCOVERING HILL FIGURES. By KATE BERGAMER. Shire Publications, Tring; N.D. Pp. 48. Plates 8.4s. 6d. Reviewed by Theo Brown.

THE STORY OF ROBIN HOOD, AND OTHER TALES OF ADVENTURE AND BATTLE. Edited by ANDREW LANG. Illustrated by H. J. Ford. Schocken Books: New York. $1.75. Reviewed by Roger Lancelyn Green.

CHINESE FAIRY TALES. By ISABELLE C. CHANG. Illustrated by Shirley Errickson. Schocken Books: New York. $2.45. Reviewed by Roger Lancelyn Green.

Die zweite Sammlung der lettischen Volkslieder von Gustav Bergmann. By H. BIEZAIS. Skrifter utgivna av Religionshistoriska Institutionen i Uppsala, vol. 3. Uppsala (Almquist &; Wiksells Boktryckeri) 1967. Pp. 110. Pls 4. Reviewed by Ellen Ettlinger.

THE HUMAN SKULL. A CULTURAL HISTORY. By FOLKE HENSCHEN. With an introduction by K. P. Oakley. London (Thames &; Hudson) 1965. Pp. 168, 22 text figs, 76 plates. Reviewed by Ellen Ettlinger.

VOLKSSAGEN AUS DEM RIESEN- UND ISER-GEBIRGE. By ROBERT COGHO AND WILL-ERICH PEUCKERT. Denkmäler deutscher Volksdichtung, vol. 8. Göttingen (Verlag Otto Schwartz &; Co.) 1967. Pp. ix, 102; plates 10, and 1 map. Reviewed by Ellen Ettlinger.     

Lester B. Pearson’s Temple University Speech Revisited: The Origins and Evolution of the Proposal for a Bombing Pause

Lester B. Pearson’s speech at Temple University in April 1965 suggesting a pause in the bombing of North Vietnam enraged United States President Lyndon B. Johnson, who in private the next day at Camp David strongly rebuked the Canadian prime minister. While their stormy encounter has become the stuff of legend, just how the controversial proposal for a bombing pause appeared in Pearson’s speech in the first place has received far less attention. Making use of new archival material, including the private diary of Canadian Under-Secretary of State for External Affairs Marcel Cadieux, among other original sources, this article revisits previous accounts of the Temple speech, offering new details on the origins of the proposal for a bombing pause and examining the hitherto unknown but crucial drafting changes that were made prior to its becoming public. In doing so, this article sheds new light on one of the most significant events in the history of Canadian–American relations.     

Building a Venture Capital Market in Vietnam: Diffusion of a Neoliberal Market Strategy to a Socialist State

Abstract

Vietnam’s venture capital (VC) industry took shape in the late 1990s during a period of exceptional economic growth in the country and the development of its high-technology sector. High growth rates and technological advances have typically coincided with both strong VC market activity and state support of equity financing. This, however, has not been the case in Vietnam. In this article a policy diffusion framework is used to investigate the international and domestic origins of Vietnam’s nascent VC policies, and how they became part of the agenda of the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) as credit-based, rather than equity-based, solutions. The article argues that Vietnam’s heterodox approach to VC policy results from both external forces from donors and from domestic factors. In particular, Vietnamese policymakers have a preference for credit-based SME financing solutions and Vietnam’s official development assistance providers diffuse expertise on loans, not equity investments, to the Socialist Republic. The only donors recommending VC and equity-based financing in Vietnam have gone “around the state” rather than through it by working directly with the private sector. As a result, Vietnam’s SME financing initiatives have significantly diverged from international VC policy patterns.     

‘‘This Secret Town’: British Intelligence,the Special Relationship,and the Vietnam War’

This article seeks to revise our understanding of Cold War intelligence as a practice. The conventional view is that Britain's MI6 waged a battle in the shadows consisting of espionage and covert action. However, a number of MI6 officers operated as observers, conducting what we might call ‘intelligence without espionage’. The dual identity of these officers raises important questions about how intelligence operated in the blurred space between traditional diplomacy and human espionage using agents. Using the case of MI6 officers in the British Consulate-General in Hanoi between 1965 and 1972, this article explores how a dual identity provided alternative means of acquiring intelligence within a highly secure state that exhibited remarkable paranoia about foreign spies. Furthermore, the United States lacked diplomatic representation in Hanoi and so the British Consulate provided a remarkable window for Western intelligence on the effect of ‘Operation Rolling Thunder’, Lyndon Johnson's escalating air campaign against North Vietnam. Both Johnson and Harold Wilson were avid readers of this material. Accordingly, in the context of the Cold War intelligence partnership between the UK and US, the consulate in Hanoi was an example of the ‘inverse’ special relationship, in which Britain enjoyed unique value.     

Racial Stereotyping: A Hidden Factor in the Vietnam War?

Book reviewed in this article:
Mark Bradley, Imagining Vietnam and America: The Making of Postcolonial Vietnam, 1919–1950     

Accessing global value chains? The role of business state relations in the private clothing industry in Vietnam

This article deals with the access to global markets via inclusionin global value chains for private clothing producers in Vietnam.It argues that ‘chain entry barriers’ are not onlyconstructed by global buyers as it is often suggested, but alsoby political–economic processes in Vietnam. The marketorientations of four segments of private enterprise owners isexamined and shown to correspond to their ethnicity, originand location in northern or southern Vietnam. It is argued thatthis is mostly because these factors influence access to thestate system, where export-related resources are found.     

Why Vietnam? Postrevisionist Answers and a Neorealist Suggestion

Review in this Article
Andrew J. Rotter. The Path to Vietnam: Origins of the American Commitment to Southeast Asia . Ithaca
Lloyd C. Gardner. Approaching Vietnam: From World War II through Dienbienphu, 1941–1954 . New York     

Kennedy on Tape

Books reviewed:
Philip Zelikow and Ernest May, general eds.; Timothy Naftali, ed., vol. 1; Timothy Naftali and Philip D. Zelikow, eds., vol. 2; Philip D. Zelikow and Ernest R. May, eds., vol. 3. The Presidential Recordings: John F. Kennedy: The Great Crises.     

论中国对越美和谈态度的转变及其对中越关系的影响(1968～1971年)

中国领导人对越南战争的态度在1968～1971年间发生了转变,即1968年初至1969年上半年,坚决反对越南与美国谈判;1969年下半年至1970年8月,从不干涉越美和谈转变为支持越南谈判;1970年9月后,态度鲜明地支持和谈。中国前后两种立场都引起越南的强烈不满。虽然中国没有以牺牲越南的利益来换得中美关系的缓和,而且在自己并不富裕的条件下,仍给予了越南大量的无偿援助,但这些努力都没有改变越南对中国的不满、疑虑与不安。在中美缓和与越美谈判的进程中,中越关系却不断恶化,这为后来双方的冲突埋下了隐患。     

BOOK REVIEWS

Books Reviewed in this article: Mishkāt al-Masāb?h, English Translation with Explanatory Notes , by James Robson, Sh. Muh. Ashraf, Lahore, 1963–1965. Pp. 1453. Jesus in the Qurān. By Geoffrey Parrinder. Faber and Faber, London, 1965. Pp. 187. 32s 6d. Bukhara: The Medieval Achievement. By Richard N. Frye. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1965. Pp. xiii + 210. $2.75. A Reader's Guide to the Great Religions. Edited by Charles J. Adams. The Free Press, New York, 1965. Pp. xv + 364. The Arab Cold War, 1958–1964: A Study of Ideology in Politics , by Malcolm Kerr. Oxford University Press (Chatham House Series), London, 1965; pp. VIII, 139. Arabic and Islamic Studies in Honor of Hamilton A. R. Gibb. Edited by G. Makdisi. E. J. Brill, Leiden, and Harvard University Press, 1965. Pp. xviii +688. Gld. 120. A History of Islamic Spain. By Montgomery Watt, with sections on literature by Pierre Cachia. Edinburgh University Press, 1965. Pp. x + 210, illustrations, maps. 25s. $6. History of Eastern Arabia 1750–1800: The Rise and Development of Bahrain and Kuwait , By Ahmad Abu Hakima, pp. xix, 213, Beirut, Khayat's. 1965. Saudi Arabia in the Nineteenth Century , By R. Bayly Winder, pp. xiv, 312, London, Macmillan, and New York, St. Martin's Press, 1965. The Origins of the Islamic State. Translation by Philip K. Hitti, Beirut, Kha. yat's Oriental Reprints, No. 11, 1960. Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science , University of Chicago, March, 1966, Vol. 1, No. 1. The Armenian Communities in Syria under Ottoman Dominion. By Avedis K. Sanjian. Harvard University Press, Mass, 1965, pp. 390. Bibliography. $8.95. Towards Pakistan. By Waheed-uz-Zaman, Publishers United, Lahore, 1964, 252 p. Rs. 12.50. History, Archaeology and Christian Humanism. By William Foxwell Albright. Adam & Charles Black, London 1965. pp. x, 342. 35s. net. Egyptian Guilds in Modern Times. By Gabriel Baer, pp. xiii and 192. The Israel Oriental Society (Oriental Notes and Studies, No. 8) (Jerusalem, 1964). $4.50.