REVIEW ARTICLE USE-WEAR ANALYSIS: THE STATE OF THE ART

This paper is a review of the recent developments in use-wear analysis. The focus is on some key issues: polish formation, quantification of use-wear, residue analysis and the way these related themes have affected methods of use-wear analysis. A brief history of the development of use-wear analysis is presented and a discussion of blind tests, expert systems (explained at length in the ‘Appendix’) and how use-wear analysis can be incorporated into the chaîne opératoire approach to the interpretation of Stone Age sites.     

Use wear and post-depositional surface modification: A word of caution

This is a preliminary report on experiments designed to study the effect of stratigraphically invisible minor movement of artifacts in the sediment on flint surfaces. The hypothesis was that such prolonged movement could be responsible for postdepositional surface modifications which sometimes mimick use-wear traces and at other times obliterate them. The study was prompted by observation of the high incidence of these phenomena on a wide variety of sites. The results constitute a cautionary tale to those embarking on the microwear analysis of assemblages where these surface alterations are present.     

Use-wear analysis of an Amudian laminar assemblage from the Acheuleo-Yabrudian of Qesem Cave,Israel

In this paper the results of use-wear analysis of an Amudian lithic assemblage recently discovered at Qesem Cave, Israel, are presented. Although very old, this assemblage maintains well-preserved traces of use that indicate that butchering activities and plants collecting were carried out at the site. Cut marks on faunal remains confirm the observations obtained by use-wear analysis.     

Lithic raw material physical properties and use-wear accrual

Understanding the nature of the physical properties of lithic raw materials is a pre-requisite for developing more reliable interpretations of use-wear evidence and tool function. We use nanoindentation and use-wear experimentation as a way to measure differences in raw material surface hardness and roughness in order to show that differences in lithic material properties have implications for rates of use-wear accrual.     

Identifying grinding,scoring and rubbing use-wear on experimental ochre pieces

Ochre pieces were used experimentally for a variety of grinding, scoring and rubbing activities to record and compare the use-wear markings that each activity creates on the ochre piece. Ochre that is ground on coarse or fine-grained slabs develops parallel striations that cover the surface of the piece. The striations have unfrayed ends. Grinding is the only activity that results in significant changes to the surface shape of the ochre, producing a plane. When ochre is scored either to create a deliberate design or to produce powder, the grooves that form often do not reach all the edges of the used surface and they regularly have frayed terminations. This demonstrates that the incisions were created by multiple scoring strokes. When ochre is scored to manufacture ochre powder the incisions that are generated are parallel groups of grooves with erratically oriented grooves as well. Bone and wooden tools are soft and they therefore do not generally create obvious incisions on ochre pieces. Grooves created through grinding on a slab or scoring with a stone tool have microstriations within them and they show a range of profile shapes. The most common use-wear from rubbing ochre on animal hide, human skin, human hair and wood is smoothing, edge rounding and polish, although incisions and microstriations also occur occasionally. Residues are often left on an ochre piece after rubbing or scoring with organic materials. The comparative collection of macro- and microscopic use-wear marks from experimentally ground, scored and rubbed ochre is useful as an aid to classifying archaeological collections of ochre.     

Some Preliminary Observations on Subsurface Damage on Experimental and Archaeological Quartz Tools using CLSM and Dye

Lithic use-wear analysis mainly deals with use-wear features which can be observed on the surface of stone tools but a major part of the wear of brittle material is found under the surface. This wear might also be a clue to the interpretation of archaeological stone tools. In this paper we try to examine subsurface damage on experimental and archaeological quartz tools by dying them with fluorescent colour and scanning them with a CLSM. This method shows that various worked materials cause different subsurface damage, which is related to the hardness of the worked material.     

Microwear study of quartzite artefacts: preliminary results from the Middle Pleistocene site of Payre (South-eastern France)

Preliminary functional results obtained from the quartzite assemblage of the Early Middle Palaeolithic site of Payre (South-eastern France) are presented. In an area rich in flint, hominins at Payre also collected quartzite in their local environment, specifically along the Rhône River banks. Although the Payre lithic assemblage is largely composed of flint, quartzite was introduced in the site mainly as large cutting tools knapped outside. This fact pointed out an apparently highly differential treatment of the raw material types available in the region. A major concern is to understand the reason why. Is there any functional reason for the introduction of those artefacts, perhaps to perform specific activities related to the toughness of quartzite? Or is there any functional differentiation among the various raw materials? Use-wear analysis is a useful tool for better understanding human technological choices and strategies of lithic raw material management. Before attempting to extensively apply use-wear analysis on the quartzite assemblage, we analysed a limited sample to evaluate the general surface preservation. A specific experimental programme with the same local quartzite was carried out in order to provide a reliable comparative reference for interpreting use-wear evidence on archaeological implements. Methodological difficulties related to use-wear analysis applied to quartzite artefacts are also discussed. Both Optical light microscopy (OLM) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) were employed in this study; however, interpretations were elaborated considering principally SEM micro-graphs.The analysis of the archaeological material showed a good state of preservation of the surfaces with a low incidence of post-depositional alterations. The documented use-wear allowed us to identify the active edges, the kinematics and, more rarely, the worked material. Chopping activities were documented on two large artefacts suggesting a specific utility of those tools.     

Laboratory evidence of the use of metal tools at Machu Picchu (Peru) and environs

An interpretation of use-wear marks on metal artifacts is developed from the principles of metal cutting and brittle fracture and applied to surficial markings and microstructural damage on bronze tools from Machu Picchu and environs. Most of the tools have blunt edges, relatively low tin contents, and were not work hardened before use; they appear to have been designed for work that involved breaking chips from hard, brittle material. Use-wear marks on these tools are interpreted as due to sliding contacts and impacts with rock. One tool with a relatively sharp edge has a higher alloy content than those with blunt edges and has been work hardened; it appears to have been designed for cutting wood and use-wear markings suggest it was so used. A long bronze bar carries markings that suggest use by stonemasons. Many of the tools are broken and study of their microstructures shows that the bronze used has poor mechanical properties because of porosity and bands of sulphide inclusions.     

Integration of use-wear with protein residue analysis – a study of tool use and function in the south Scandinavian Early Neolithic

This study presents research on how an integration of use-wear analysis with protein residue analysis can produce new results on prehistoric tool use and function. Thirty flint artefacts from an Early Neolithic TRB site in south Sweden were analysed for both use-wear and protein residues. The results show a positive correlation between the two methods. The Early Neolithic tools analysed were primarily used to process fish.     

CUT ABOVE THE REST: A MULTI-DISCIPLINARY STUDY OF TWO SLATE KNIVES FROM FORAGER CONTEXTS IN COASTAL NORWAY

Slate was a prominent tool material in the Scandinavian Stone Age. However, details of tool function have relied on morphology and have added little to our understanding of their role in hunting and processing. Here, we demonstrate that it is possible to identify both the use-wear traces and residues from slate knives from northern Norway. By applying a multi-disciplinary approach incorporating experimentation, use-wear and organic residue analyses, we identified residues, including seal hair, and use-traces which indicate the tools were used to process fresh marine mammals.     

Functionality and Morphology: Identifying <Emphasis Type="Italic">Si</Emphasis> Agricultural Tools from Among Hemudu Scapular Implements in Eastern China

Most Chinese archaeologists assume that the scapular implements used in the Hemudu culture in eastern China (7000–5000 BP) were the si agricultural implements (tools for breaking ground and turning soils over to assist in seeding) recorded in ancient Chinese literatures and, accordingly, assume the Hemudu culture was a farming society. However, ethnographic and historical literatures worldwide have suggested inconclusive functions for similar implements. We conducted a range of experiments under realistic conditions, including hide and plant processing and earth-working, followed by use-wear analysis, to identify the functions of the Hemudu scapular implements. The results suggest that no more than half of the implements were employed as si and that their penetrability and durability were rather limited. These findings help explain why Hemudu should not be labeled as a farming society. Through experimentation and use-wear analysis, we produced relatively large datasets that make a significant contribution to the identification of soil-derived wear patterns on bone tools. We also included quantitative measurements of soil properties to ensure similarities in use contexts between our experimental and archaeological analogies in order to reach reliable functional identifications. Our approaches and results, therefore, provided a solid base for re-evaluating previous research as well as building a standardized database of scientific value for future evaluation and adjustment, even if that future research is done in isolation and in different soil contexts.     

Technical microwear and residues in identifying bipolar knapping on an anvil: experimental data

The functional study of the stone tool artefacts from the Middle Pleistocene site of Isernia la Pineta (Molise, central Italy) revealed microtraces that display certain features that did not fit in with what we know as use-wear traces. The suspicion that these microtraces may be technical traces derived from bipolar flaking, which is prevalent at this site, led us to initiate an experimental programme to check our hypothesis. The experiments conducted allowed us to identify residues associated with bipolar flaking on an anvil and to characterise the microscopic traces derived from this production technique. Our results proved very useful in identifying the artefacts produced by bipolar flaking, as well as in determining the basic lithological features of the anvil. Moreover, these experiments allowed us to assess the possible interferences that these kinds of technical traces can cause when performing the functional analyses of lithic assemblages produced by the bipolar technique.     

Ohio Hopewell Ceremonial Bladelet Use at the Moorehead Circle,Fort Ancient

In the past twenty years, lithic use-wear studies have been used to determine the function of Hopewell bladelets. These studies have uniformly shown that the bladelets were multipurpose, utilitarian tools in domestic contexts. Debate arises as to their function in ritual or ceremonial contexts. The question of bladelet function in ceremonial contexts remains unanswered because use-wear studies of bladelets have not been extensively applied to well-provenienced ceremonial assemblages. Microwear analysis was conducted on a sample of bladelets recovered from the Moorehead Circle within the Fort Ancient Earthworks in order to comment on the above debate as well as to determine the activities that occurred there prehistorically. The Moorehead Circle was a center of intensive activity as evidenced by the high rate of utilization and numerous tasks performed with bladelets. Intersite comparison indicates that the Moorehead Circle bladelets were utilized for the same range of tasks as bladelets from other sites in Ohio.     

Cross-cultural interaction on Wuvulu Island,Papua New Guinea: the perspective from use-wear and residue analyses of turtle bone artifacts

Recent studies have emphasized the importance of Indigenous producers and traders in the formation of ethnographic museum collections, but have found difficulty in finding concrete evidence for their active roles. A use-wear and residue study of turtle bone cleavers from Wuvulu Island, Papua New Guinea provides the opportunity to test whether objects that comprise a significant component of early collections were made specifically for sale, as hypothesized by contemporary observers in the late 19th century. Comparative studies of used and unused turtle bone artifacts from the Caroline Islands and Papua New Guinea identified differences between wear traces resulting from manufacture and use. Analyses of the Wuvulu turtle bone cleavers showed they had been heavily used prior to sale. Rather than produce artifacts to meet the high demand from German traders, the local people sold old, worn-out objects, many of which had been repaired. The study demonstrates that archaeological approaches to ethnographic museum collections can trace Indigenous agency within cross-cultural interaction. It also showcases the potential of use-wear and residue analytical techniques for the analysis of bone tools and the utility of digital, hand-held microscopes for the analysis of large artifacts.     

Early Iron Age Archer's Finger Tab from the Eastern Amur Region

The article presents the results of an examination of a stone artifact with an opening, originally described as a burnisher. The shape and use-wear analyses of this artifact suggest that it is a tab worn to protect the archer's thumb     

Gloss and use-wear traces on flint sickles and similar phenomena

Using a scanning electron microscope, the high optical polish or gloss and other use-wear traces on the edges of sickle blades are characterized and compared with polishes on other artifacts and natural pieces. The photomicrographs of the surface features and cross sections of the sickle blades as well as laboratory simulation tests, show that the gloss does not form an additive surface layer. Instead, polish formation is considered to be the result of surface alteration caused by frictional mechanisms. Use-wear traces also suggest evidence of how and on what crop the sickles were used.     

The function of Chalcolithic metalwork in Italy: an assessment based on use-wear analysis

This paper presents results of the use-wear analysis of Chalcolithic copper-base metalwork from the Italian peninsula. Previous research led to contrasting scholarly opinions regarding the function of early metal axes, daggers and halberds from this region. Whilst some authors interpreted these objects as utilitarian tools and weapons, others saw them as symbolic signifiers of social status and personhood. The analysis conducted here shows that this is a false dichotomy as all classes of metalwork seem to embody to some extent both utilitarian and non-utilitarian values. In particular, axes were primarily used for woodworking and other practical tasks, but were mostly withdrawn from circulation when still usable. This suggests that deposition practices bore a loose relationship, if any, with the functional value of the tools. Daggers were employed in a range of symbolically charged practices that left little wear on cutting edges. These probably included the sacrificial slaughtering and skinning of large animals such as cattle and horses. Halberds were utilised as weapons in champion’s duels in which display of combative skills and prowess would have been far more important than killing the opponent. This explains the relatively low rate of damaged blades in the record. Regardless of their practical function in lifetime settings, these objects were all similarly employed in burial to reproduce core social values such as gender and age. Importantly, this study contributes to debunking undemonstrated assumptions concerning the function of early metalwork in European prehistory. It also defines a replicable analytical protocol for the use-wear analysis of ancient copper-alloy artefacts.     

8500-year-old Late Mesolithic garment embroidery from Vlasac (Serbia): Technological,use-wear and residue analyses

This paper presents results of contextual, technological, use-wear and residue analyses of body ornaments from two Late Mesolithic burials recently excavated at the site of Vlasac in the Danube Gorges of the central Balkans. Common to both burials are ornaments made from modified and unmodified carp (Cyprinidae sp.) pharyngeal ‘teeth’ along with Cyclope neritea marine gastropods. Experimental and low and high magnification use-wear approaches have been employed in reconstructing the way these ornaments were made and used. The precise contextual distribution of these ornaments has been recorded for the first time. The two examined burials exhibit a number of similarities, particularly in the way ornaments were placed in relation to the body. Both burials are also contemporaneous, dated to the mid-7th millennium BC. Implications of these findings for Mesolithic foragers' corporeal symbolism, group identity and regional and long-distance acquisition networks are briefly examined.     

From Aterian Notch to Aterian Tang: How to Make a Technological Invention

The Aterian lithic techno-complex that characterizes the late Middle Stone Age in North Africa is well known especially for its tanged or stemmed points. Recent techno-morphological and use-wear analyses have added new data to support the identification of the tang as the hafted portion of an artifact. They have also highlighted the presence of this attribute on tools other than projectile points, in contrast with the widespread idea that the tanged point is the Aterian fossile directeur. The design of this specific device, the tang, for hafting purposes is regarded as a great technical innovation that underlines a modern behavior. Our work provides new use-wear and experimental data, aiming at discussing the cognitive preconditions of this technical innovation that could have originated from a specific functional unit: the notch. Notches are quite abundant in the Aterian techno-complex. Our systematic study of this tool category from Aterian sites of the Jebel Gharbi allowed defining the notch per se as a techno-morpho-functional unit that was “applied” to different types of blanks, including “reused blanks,” which show a heavy patina on their surface. This functional unit has been used for various types of activities and can be found either alone on a blank or with multiple other units on the same blank, creating different tool morphologies. According to this interpretation, the tang could have been considered by Aterian populations as a new resulting variant of various possible combinations of notches, for defining and/or transforming the shape of a tool.     

Clues to Stone Tool Function Re-examined: Comparing Starch Grain Frequencies on Used and Unused Obsidian Artefacts

The identification of plant residues observed on prehistoric stone artefacts has often been used to inform on tool function without adequate consideration of potential contamination due to post-depositional processes. The paper redresses this balance by proposing a methodology which combines use-wear and residue analyses with systematic testing of depositional context to distinguish residues formed during tool use from accidental contamination. A case study involving obsidian artefacts from an open site in Papua New Guinea is used to illustrate the new approach. Starch grains, a class of residue which has had little attention outside Australia, were chosen as the focus of study because of their abundance at this site. The frequency of starch grains extracted from residues on stone artefacts was compared with those in sediments adhering to and adjacent to the artefact. A use-wear study conducted as a blind test provided an independent measure of whether the artefacts had been used. The frequency of starch grains was shown to be significantly correlated with used artefacts and not correlated with unused artefacts or the sediments. The case study demonstrates the importance of testing for contamination and also illustrates the benefit of studying starch grains as a class of plant residue.