International prototypes and local identity: The walled garden of Scotland as heritage landscape

Abstract

The distinctiveness of place is a central, and often unquestioned, tenet of landscape heritage studies and the landscape design and conservation which may accompany them. In learning from history and other comparative studies, one of the many challenges is to discern what determines diversity in the landscape. At what point does the local expression of an international prototype become a local and unique landscape type, a local landscape heritage, in its own right? This paper takes the walled garden of Scotland as an example to explore issues of national, regional and local landscape identities. It examines cultural traditions, biophysical constraints and stylistic responses to availability and command of materials and technologies. It explores some of the origins of the walled garden, the way the landscape type was developed and refined in response to the Scottish context, and the way this element is treated as landscape heritage today.     

The Concept of Landscape and Landscapes of Different Orders

The paper is an expanded version of a Lomonosov lecture given April 12, 1956, in the Earth Science Museum of Moscow University. Yefremov criticizes the confusion derived from the dual meaning of “landscape” as used by Soviet geographers: (1) landscape as an areal unit of varying taxonomic rank constituting a complex of all components that interact within the earth's surficial sphere (or landscape sphere), and (2) landscape as an indivisible basic areal unit, or “molecule,” or “cell” of physical geography. Yefremov defends the first and assails the second point of view.     

我国区域宗教文化景观及其旅游开发

宗教是一种重要的旅游资源,作为一种文化现象与旅游关系密切。研究不同区域宗教与文化景观之间的作用与关系,开展宗教旅游对旅游资源的深度开发,旅游业的可持续发展具有重要意义。本文论述了宗教与宗教文化景观之间的相互作用与影响,指出了中国宗教具有明显的地理特征并从以下几个方面探讨了宗教旅游的开发:①进行区域宗教研究,开展宗教旅游;②深究宗教文化内涵,设计开发宗教旅游项目;③保护宗教旅游资源,构建协调的文化景观;④解放思想协调关系搞好宗教旅游开发。     

苏州园林文学与园林旅游

本试图以苏州园林为例,剖析园林学与园林旅游的关系,认为园林学在对园林意境的点示、开拓、再现以及园林旅游的宣传、导游、开发中都起着重要作用,是急需开发的人旅游资源。     

基于地理学视角的中国山水画分析

本文从美术地理学的角度出发阐述了中国山水画的地域差别,指出地理环境对山水画的影响主要表现在几方面:即对山水画作品面貌的影响,对山水画家创作灵感的影响,对作品风格和地域特色的影响,对山水画派和地域人才形成的影响。因而,地理环境是艺术家创作的对象和源泉,也是决定美术风格的关键因素,对山水画派和地域人才的形成具有重要影响。     

Atlas of the United States

In an attempt to distinguish between regional physical geography and the Soviet school of landscape science, the author defines the study objects of the two disciplines and provides a useful review of the present state of landscape science in the Soviet Union. Physical geography is said to be concerned with study of the entire geographical shell of the earth, ranging from the troposphere to the bottom of the layer of sedimentary rocks in the earth's crust. Landscape science focuses on the so-called landscape sphere, which is defined as the portion of the geographical shell that lies at or near the surface of the earth and is imbued with present-day life. Although some Soviet geographers treat the term “landscape” as a broad conceptual term (similar to climate), most investigators tend to give the term a classificatory or typological connotation, regarding landscape as the basic unit in a classification of natural geocomplexes. One landscape school focuses on the morphological structure of landscape, the other on model-building of the landscape mechanism.     

桂林旅游景区书法景观符号效应分析

书法景观是具有中国特色的特殊文化景观和文化符号,广泛应用于旅游景区而成为旅游景观的一种重要类型.本文以桂林旅游景区的书法景观为案例进行研究,结果表明,书法景观作为旅游景区的重要人文景观,旅游者总体上对其具有较高的认知和鉴赏兴趣;书法景观对旅游者产生了一定程度的符号效应,具体表现在书法鉴赏、文化象征、审美引导3个方面,对应于外在行为、文化环境知觉、景观审美活动3个层次的行为效应.书法景观的符号效应在书法鉴赏方面存在显著差异,而在文化象征和审美引导方面无显著差异.书法景观符号效应研究对于揭示人们的地方感和环境行为与书法景观之间的关系、旅游景区书法景观的设计和景区文化氛围的营造等具有指导意义.     

LANDSCAPE AS A SUBJECT OF HUMAN IMPACT

A continuing critique of the Soviet school of anthropogenic landscape science (see Soviet Geography, October 1974) questions whether man is, in fact, capable of creating “new” landscapes or his intervention in the natural environment simply tends to “modify” existing natural landscapes. The author rejects the view that significant modification of anyone of the components of landscape (including flora and fauna) is sufficient to produce an anthropogenic landscape or that a cutover forest area or a cattle trail, for example, represents a newly created landscape. A genuine modification of landscape requires an alteration of the basic structure of landscape, and this can be achieved only through modification of primary landscape components, such as the geomorphic foundation and climate. These are precisely the components that are less susceptible to human intervention than secondary components like plant and animal communities. Another criterion of basic landscape modification is stability; most anthropogenic landscapes turn out to be unstable when abandoned. Man achieves the most stable results in landscape modification by acting in concert with natural dynamic tendencies in the landscape.     

艺术介入背景下的乡村景观再生产研究

乡村景观研究多注重物质层面的讨论,与之相关的社会文化及其权力关系分析却不常见。本研究以全面生产理论为基础构筑了以“景观”为研究对象的理论分析框架,解读了艺术介入下白族村落双廊的乡村景观再生产过程。研究发现,双廊景观再生产过程是乡村发展趋于艺术化、现代化与旅游化的过程。艺术家以催化、牵引、调节等柔性作用方式介入其中,推动景观形态的重构;介入过程作用于景观的不同结构,在经济、政治、文化等不同层面均有反馈;其实践涉及政府、居民、游客以及艺术家自身的愿景表达,促成了景观理想的主体间性。双廊的艺术乡建旅游发展之路,对我国乡村振兴战略的实施具有参考作用。     

城市语言景观研究进展及展望

语言景观是城市景观的重要组成部分,同时也是重要的人文地理表征。新世纪以来语言景观日益引起语言学家和地理学家的关注和重视。1997年西方社会语言学家首先提出了语言景观(linguistic landscape)定义,21世纪以来涌现出大量城市语言景观研究成果;国内语言景观主要集中在城镇书法景观的地理学研究,主要包括书法景观与城镇景观的关系、书法景观的空间属性、书法景观的人地关系等。论文从三个方面对城市语言景观进行了评述。最后从语言地理学视角,对未来城市语言景观重要研究内容进行了展望,认为城市语言景观将可能成为语言地理学深入研究的有效途径和新方向,尤其是在城市象征空间塑造及其地方建构中语言景观研究将大有作为。     

沈阳市城市景观演化及其驱动因素分析

分析了沈阳市50年代、70年代、80年代和90年代城市景观及其演化情况,并分析了沈阳市城市景观发展演化的驱动因素。认为城市景观的演化是一个长期复杂的动态化过程,是各种因素综合作用的结果,直接的因素主要有经济体制和决策因素、工业发展、人口增加及城市规划的指导思想等。     

基于景观生态的亚热带沿海景观及旅游保护性开发探讨——以福建省为例

沿海景观作为海洋景观与陆地景观的边界,是特色鲜明和空间异质性突出的系统整体。同时沿海地区一直是人类开发较早、人地关系紧密、系统物能交换最频繁、最集中的区域,对海-陆-气系统耦合力和内外营力具有高度的敏感性,因此保持沿海景观的生态整体性尤为重要。研究沿海景观的景观体系和开发利用,目前在我国仍属于薄弱环节。本文评述福建沿海景观分类并概括其生态特征,应用景观生态的原理,探讨福建沿海景观旅游保护性开发模式,构建和谐稳定的景观格局。     

Landscapes of deliquescence in Michelangelo Antonioni's Red Desert

The cinematic landscape provides a rich opportunity to explore cultural representations of place, space and nature. This essay focuses on the depiction of landscape in Michelangelo Antonioni's Red Desert (1964 ). Previous approaches to the critical interpretation of landscape in the cinema of Antonioni have been characterized by three principal weaknesses: a narrow emphasis on formalist and auterist lines of influence between different branches of the visual arts; an attachment to exceptionalist characterizations of the Italian cinematic landscape; and a transhistorical interpretation of existential themes such as alienation. In this essay we shall consider two neglected themes: the significance of the technological sublime for the aesthetic experience of industrial landscapes; and the impact of abstract expressionism on Antonioni's cinematic vision. We will counter simplistic categorizations of Antonioni's work by considering the complexity of the relationship between the cinematic landscape and wider developments in twentieth-century modernism. The essay concludes by locating Red Desert at a unique juncture in the development of modernist conceptions of nature and landscape.     

On the So-Called Anthropogenic Landscapes

A Leningrad physical geographer, who is an advocate of the natural landscape school in Soviet geography, offers a critique of the school of anthropogenic landscape science favored by F. N. Mil'kov of Voronezh University and others. Landscapes, in the critic's view, are natural formations produced by physical cause-and-effect relationships among their natural components, and no basis is found for the development of a theory of anthropogenic landscapes that reflect the impact of human activity and minimize the role of natural elements. The author questions whether man is in fact capable of creating landscape in the literal sense and whether this can be accomplished by merely modifying a single natural landscape component. Further investigation is urged to establish the real role of engineering structures and agricultural activities in the landscape and their place within the system of natural linkages within the landscape. This line of investigation should then lead to study of the structure of landscapes that have been modified by man and to an understanding of a sequence of landscape succession, including man-induced and reconstructed variants.     

重塑风景：兼论贵州旅游形象的建构

风景与旅游形象的关系密不可分。风景远不止于山山水水,它同时作为人类文化和理想的载体,更是旅行者实现“伟大浪漫”梦想的场域,同样的风景对不同的人群有着不同的意义——风景事实上有着一副多变的面孔（形象）。鉴于此,在建构风景形象或确立旅游主题形象时,不仅要根植于东道主文化,还应从“他者”的角度赋予地方更宽广的涵义,以创造和维持“地方神话”——因为在此建构过程中,旅游者也不由自主地参与了东道主文化的共生共建,其自身融入并构成了风景。     

SHADOWS OF PLANNING: ON LANDSCAPE/PLANNING HISTORY AND INHERITED LANDSCAPE AMBIGUITIES AT THE URBAN FRINGE

The history of vernacular landscapes at the urban fringe is poorly studied, limiting our understanding of the contemporary character of the fringe and our knowledge of the urbanization process. This article argues the necessity of a combined analysis of the legacies of planning and the footprints of former landscape ideals in order to understand the conditions for spatial planning at the urban fringe. After first introducing the methodological use of landscape/planning history, the article focuses on the Swedish discourse on landscape change and landscape planning concerning the urban fringe in the 1930s. Particular focus is placed on the discourse on agricultural landscapes at the urban fringe. The third section of the article presents an examination of the footprints of the ‘landscape convention’ (i.e. an agreement on the meaning of landscape in relation to law and justice) resulting from the landscape discourse of the 1930s. The article argues that the legacy of the 1930s explains some of the difficulties arising when planners of today aim to utilize the farm landscape as a resource for recreation at the urban fringe. The shadow of the landscape discourse of the 1930s also creates difficulties in dealing with peri‐urban landscapes in Swedish planning and Swedish law. With the ongoing discourse on how to implement the European Landscape Convention, such knowledge is particularly useful.     

The rise of cultural landscapes

The new interest in cultural landscapes is forcing a reappraisal of concepts of countryside heritage. First the traditional split between cultural and natural values is challenged. Second, modern landscape studies emphasise the subjectivity of landscape assessment, and this is subverting the former tendency to aspire to objectivity in evaluation. The acceptance of ‘associative’ value in landscape is an indicator of this. Modern landscape studies also emphasise the interrelationships between processes and aspects of value, and this is encouraging specialists to communicate across disciplinary frontiers. The desire by ecologists in the mid‐1980s to have cultural landscapes inscribed on the World Heritage list caused a re‐assessment of the World Heritage Criteria, and an initiative by ICOMOS brought this process to a conclusion in 1992. However the reappraisal of concepts of countryside value imply that there are many other philosophical and practical matters still to be resolved.     

书法景观在景区旅游意象构建中的作用研究——以西安碑林为例

书法景观作为重要的文化景观,为游客提供多重信息,对游客感知和行为产生重要影响。纵观书法景观和旅游意象研究,尚不存在书法景观应用性价值研究及景观元素对目的地旅游意象构建作用的实证研究。本文以西安碑林为例,通过对书法景观功能维度进行划分,构建结构方程模型,探讨书法景观在景区旅游意象构建中的作用,为未来旅游规划和发展提供建设性指导。研究表明书法景观在旅游意象构建中发挥了积极作用,且不同的书法景观功能维度(审美体验功能、地方认同功能、行为导向功能)对景区旅游意象构建中的作用方式及强度不同。