The Teaching of Ethnography in Higher Schools and of Elements of Ethnography in Middle Schools

Apparently encouraged by Il'yichev's speech, Anuchin uses the forum of a philosophy journal to urge more work on synthesis in geography. He visualizes the geography of the future as a science that would seek to uncover what he calls the “parameters” of the geographic environment and would seek to establish the precise limits within which man might alter the environment without causing undesirable after-effects.     

Let's Not!

Armand finds that Anuchin painted an overly dark picture of the future of geography in the Soviet Union. The issue of a unified geography versus two or more geographies is regarded by Armand as a fruitless terminological argument. He holds that geographers can make their research count increasingly in national planning by making more use of mathematical apparatus, familiarizing themselves with related technical disciplines, and by being bolder in making practical recommendations to policy makers.     

On the Problems of Geography and the Tasks of Popularizing Geographical Knowledge

A Moscow University geographer who advocates a unity of geography uses the medium of the Znaniye [Knowledge] Society, an organization for the popularization of scientific knowledge and communist ideology, to review the basic problems confronting geography as a research discipline. He reviews the historical sequence of philosophic concepts relating to the man-environment system in an attempt to justify his approach to the system as one in which both natural and social laws operate. Anuchin stresses the need for pure theoretical research in geography and polemicizes with those who seek prompt practical results. He restates his definition of the geographical environment as that part of the earth's landscape sphere in which nature and society interact as two parts of a single whole governed by distinctive laws. The metachronous character of development of the landscape sphere, with several parts formed at various times, is cited as an example of such a universal law. Anuchin agrees with the authors of The Science of Geography, the 1965 report of the Ad Hoc Committee on Geography, Division of Earth Sciences of the National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, that geography's overriding problem is to gain an understanding of the man-environment system and to develop tools for geographical prediction. An ability to predict the consequences of man's interference in natural processes is depicted as the principal contribution that geography can make to the pursuit of knowledge at the present stage of human development. If geography is unable to meet its responsibilities, the problem of geographical prediction may have to be taken over by other disciplines. Soviet biologists have already suggested the creation of a new science, geohygiene, to deal with the man-environment relationship.     

ON THE CONTENT AND THE TASKS OF HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY (AS THE HISTORY OF NATURE MANAGEMENT)

A Pleistocene geologist calls for a totally new approach to the study of geography as the basic discipline concerned with the man-nature relationship, or what he terms nature management (Russian, prirodopol'zovaniye). He views the basic study object of an essentially unified geography as natural-technical territorial complexes (biotechnocenoses or geotechnocenoses), requiring investigation in three time dimensions—the past (historical geography), the present (dynamic geography) and the future (predictive geography). In keeping with the proposition that historical geography should be a separate, unified discipline, a distinctive historical-geographic periodization is proposed, differing from the periodizations in use in paleogeography, anthropology, archeology and history.     

Results and Prospects of the use of Mathematical Methods in Economic Geography

A review of the use of mathematical techniques in Soviet geography finds that the new methods are an essential tool in the application of systems theory to geographical problems. Mathematical techniques are held to have the greatest promise in the investigation of space (topology), the study of large systems (set theory, general systems theory) and research on complex relationships between phenomena with a certain randomness (linear algebra, polylinear algebra, probability theory). The use of mathematical techniques should be combined with traditional methods in geography, and instead of replacing the traditional geographical methodology, mathematics may be expected to strengthen that methodology. A real need is seen for a set of basic axioms in geography, and mathematics is expected to play a significant role in this connection. Mathematical models have proved useful in the investigation of particular spatial structures, such as population density within cities and the location of service establishments. But problems have been encountered in the modeling of territorial production systems.     

A Sad Tale About Geography

Anuchin takes the discussion on methodology, long confined to the academic journals, to a general newspaper, complaining that geography as such in breaking up into particular disciplines without a reverse trend toward synthesis. He accuses I. p. Gerasimov, director of the Institute of Geography, of slighting research in integrated geography and economic geography and of reducing all geography to the physical-geographic group of disciplines.     

QUANTITATIVE GEOGRAPHY*

ABSTRACT This paper provides an overview of quantitative geography. In addition to discussing what quantitative geography is, the paper details the methods that have come to define it. Six broad categories are used to discuss the range of methods found in quantitative geography: geographic information systems; airborne sensing (global positioning system, photogrammetry, and remote sensing); statistics and exploratory spatial data analysis; mathematics and optimization; regional analysis; and computer science and simulation. Particular emphasis is given to the state of the art in each area and the contributions of geographers, with associated discussion on major unresolved issues and future research directions.     

Scientific Fundamentals of Higher Geography Education in Universities and Teachers Colleges of the USSR

The geography curriculum of universities is analyzed in terms of the total number of class-hours allocated to various groups of subjects: systematic geography, regional geography, specialization courses, courses in physics, chemistry and mathematics, and education courses. It is suggested that systematic courses could be strengthened by introduction of more courses on theoretical subjects, such as the fundamentals of landscape science and the theory of economic geography. Regional courses suffer from excessive factual material and not enough discussion of general patterns and concepts. Courses that shape the specialization of geographers should be more flexible in order to reflect continuing changes in emphasis in geographic research (for example, by introduction of a course in remote-sensing techniques). A background in the exact sciences is thought to be essential for the modern geographer.     

A Measurement Theory for Time Geography

Hägerstrand's time geography is a powerful conceptual framework for understanding constraints on human activity participation in space and time. However, rigorous, analytical definitions of basic time geography entities and relationships do not exist. This limits abilities to make statements about error and uncertainty in time geographic measurement and analysis. It also compromises comparison among different time geographic analyses and the development of standard time geographic computational tools. The time geographic measurement theory in this article consists of analytical formulations for basic time geography entities and relations, specifically, the space–time path, prism, composite path-prisms, stations, bundling, and intersections. The definitions have arbitrary spatial and temporal resolutions and are explicit with respect to informational assumptions: there are clear distinctions between measured and inferred components of each entity or relation. They are also general to n- dimensional space rather than the strict two-dimensional space of classical time geography. Algebraic solutions are available for one or two spatial dimensions, while numeric (but tractable) solutions are required for some entities and relations in higher dimensional space.     

当代国外对城市生活空间评价与社区规划的研究

西方发达国家20世纪70年代以后陆续进入后工业化阶段,城市的空间问题主要涉及到社会空间方面。地理学对其研究的核心是在探讨城市社会-生活空间结构的基础上,准确地理解、判识生活空间的质量与类型,并通过规划制定出社会-生活区域治理对策,以提高城市空间(社区)的生活质量为最终目的。对以上命题的探索涉及到当代社会地理学、城市地理学以及在此基础上产生的城市社会地理学前沿性研究。本文从综合理念与研究模式的角度,概括当代西方国家地理学对其的探索现状、研究内容、运用的方法论以及代表成果类型。     

Principles of Organization of a College Course in the use of Mathematical Methods in Physical-Geographic Research

The fundamentals underlying a proposed course on the use of mathematical techniques in physical geography are discussed. Four basic sections are: (1) a grouping of geographical problems from the point of view of systems theory, the various forms of cause-and-effect relationships in complex geographical systems, and the choice of appropriate mathematical apparatus for solving related problems; (2) the theory of models and the modeling of geographical research; (3) methods of mathematical formulation of geographical problems, and the potentialities and limitations of particular mathematical techniques; (4) problems relating to the data base required for the use of mathematical methods. Illustrative examples should be taken both from mathematics, to familiarize students with the applicability of particular techniques to geographical problems, and from geography, to analyze the prospects of solving a particular problem with different methods.     

On the Concept of the Unity of Geography

The geography faculties of Moscow and Leningrad universities have, in general, been on opposite sides of the dispute over the Anuchin book, with Moscow geographers supporting the concept of the unity of geography, and the Leningraders opposed. The following letter is designed to show that at one time members of both faculties carried on discussion on that issue in a constructive spirit.     

Travelling down the road to postdisciplinarity? Reflections of a tourism geographer

Like many other forms of scholarship in geography, tourism geography has evolved as a distinct subfield of inquiry within the discipline, although the contributions of tourism geographers are perhaps more readily acknowledged in the multidisciplinary realm of tourism studies. I trace the evolving relationship of tourism geography to both the discipline of geography and to the field of tourism studies. In doing so, I reflect on such influences as the role of institutions, paradigm shifts, technology, and other factors that affect the creation and management of geographic knowledge in the twenty‐first century. The intent of this article is two‐fold: first, to appeal to geographers for greater recognition of the importance of tourism as a quintessential component of geographic study that in today's world warrants integration into core aspects of geographic enquiry; second, to use current debates within both tourism studies and geography to reflect on issues of disciplinarity, interdisciplinarity, transdisciplinarity, and even postdisciplinarity.     

Mathematical Training of Students in the Economic-Geography Department of Moscow University's Geography Faculty

Courses offered in the mathematics training of economic geographers at Moscow University are reviewed. A total of 350 hours, stretching over the first four years of the five-year course of study, includes two courses in mathematical principles (higher mathematics and statistics) followed by two courses that deal with particular applications in economic geography (including one on location models). A need is seen for revising the present program with a view to expanding the total number of hours to 500–600, providing more rigorous training in mathematical techniques and computer programing at an earlier stage, and leaving the actual applications to courses in economic geography proper.     

General Geographic Concepts

Following are fragments of a book devoted to theoretical geography on which Professor Smirnov, head of the Department of Economic Geography of Odessa University, was working at the time of his death in July, 1969. An attempt is made to formulate a system of general geographic concepts that would constitute the axiomatic foundation of geography. Several types of fundamental concepts are distinguished: spatial concepts; concepts of the structure and functions of geographical formations; concepts of simple and complex formations, etc. The present paper is limited to an examination of spatial concepts associated with geographical space, which is viewed as one of the general properties of geographical formations. Three basic spatial concepts are discussed: (a) the concept of group space, meaning the space occupied by a set of interrelated objects, as opposed to the individual space of a single object; (b) the concept of spatial integration of phenomena, implying causal relationships; (c) the concept of geographical commonality of phenomena, as opposed to the theory of uniqueness or local exclusiveness. The interplay of general laws and purely local relationships gives rise to a spatial field of interaction known as the geographical field. A geographical formation and its field of interaction may be centered, as in urban settlement, industry and other nodal phenomena, or they may be noncentered, as in rural settlement, agriculture and other spatially continuous phenomena. Other concepts are the area, shape, orientation and spatial dynamics of development of geographical formations.     

New Horizons for Regional Geography

Two prominent U.S. geographers outline the framework and mandate of an emerging new regional geography as a tool for understanding rapid and profound changes in the contemporary world. In so doing, they differentiate this new approach to the geographic study of regions from both (a) the traditional practice of regional geography prevailing in the discipline from the mid-19th century and (b) accounts of geography's role in contemporary affairs offered by non-specialists in the mass media (e.g., Kaplan's "revenge of geography"). The authors provide recommendations for, and note the benefits of, a strengthening of regional research and training in geography, while mapping out an expanded role for Eurasian Geography and Economics in disseminating new regional research whose scope extends beyond disciplinary boundaries to embrace current public and political debate. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: O100, O180, P000, R110.60 references.     

Innovations in the afterlife of the Cold War: German-language human geography

This commentary will coalesce around two main points. First, the articles by Markus Hesse on urban geography, by Annika Mattissek and Georg Glasze on recent developments in discourse-analytic approaches, and by Ulrich Best on the genealogy of radical–Marxist or critical German-language geography all support the contention that key features of Germanophone human geography still mark it out as a ‘Cold War’ human geography. As will become clear, this contention goes well beyond noting the marginality (until recently) of radical–Marxist positions (Belina, B., Best, U., & Naumann, M. (2009). Critical geography in Germany: From exclusion to inclusion via internationalization. Social Geography, 4, 47–58). Second, I will argue that although this configuration has had real costs, including both analytic and ‘civic’ deficits, it has also allowed the development of distinctive strengths and innovative emphases in human geographic research that can and should be engaged by other sub-communities in the international discourse.     

A Selected Bibliography of Mathematical Articles in Soviet Economic Geography (1960–1968)

Advocates of a new discipline of theoretical geography seek to bolster their argument for establishment of the discipline with quotations from Lenin. Theoretical geography, conceived more broadly than Bunge's mathematical geography, would seek to generalize the findings of all the particular geographical disciplines, to formulate general geographical laws, develop a common geographic method and common approaches to the formalization and modeling of geographic phenomena. Its objects of study are so-called geosystems, which are conceptualized as totalities of the autonomous spatial systems of the environment, population and the economy. Each geosystem is viewed as being associated with its geospace, defined as the “eigenspace of geographical objects, of geographically whole formations”. Geosystems are regarded as possessing a certain degree of freedom in contrast to the view that cause-and-effect relations within such systems are rigidly predetermined. The outlines of a number of general geographic laws are suggested. They include the law of growing contrast in spatial systems of all types and the law of asynchronism in the development of spatial systems. Theoretical geography is presented as having significant practical application in the analysis and prediction of the effect of man's development of spatial systems, in setting of development priorities and determining optimal types of development.     

Interaction between Nature and Society and Modern Geography

This paper, delivered by one of the leading Soviet philosophers at a plenary session of the Fourth Congress of the Geographical Society USSR, is the latest authoritative statement on the relationship between physical and economic geography. The author balances the fact of increasing differentiation and specialization and the continued existence of separate physical and economic-geographic groups of disciplines against the need for more synthesis in geographic research. He thus echoes ideas expressed by V. A. Anuchin earlier this year in the philosophical journal Problemy Filosofii [see Soviet Geography, April 1964]. Konstantinov, in preparing the paper, made use of the materials of the Combined Conference of Philosophical [Methodological] Seminars of the Academy of Sciences USSR on the theme “The problem of the interaction of nature and society and the place of the geographic sciences in its solution” [see Tezisy dokladov (Abstracts of Papers), Moscow, 1964], especially the paper by A. G. Doskach, Yu. P. Trusov, and Ye. T. Fadeyev on “The interaction of nature and society and some problems of modern geography.” Konstantinov also acknowledges suggestions from Academician I. P. Gerasimov, V. Zh. Kelle, a philosopher, and Academician Ye. K. Fedorov, a geophysicist.