Logical Problems in Geographic Science

Logicalization, or the conversion of a science to logical form, is viewed as an essential step in the formulation of theoretical geographical concepts. Three stages of logicalization are envisaged: (1) the identification of a limited number of fundamental concepts from which all other concepts can be deduced by logical operations; (2) the formation on the basis of these fundamental concepts of a set of axioms in geography; (3) the construction on the basis of these geographical axioms of a set of geographical theories in the form of formalized deductive systems. Among the fundamental concepts in geography are the concepts of geosystem and its geospace. Proposed axioms are: (1) a geosystem (and therefore its geospace), if viewed as a finite set of elements, forms an intersection with itself, meaning that nothing can be added or subtracted and the set must remain unchanged; (2) the number of geosystems is finite. Two essential conditions for the existence of a geosystem are postulated: (a) the intensity of the internal field of interaction must exceed the intensity of the intersystemic field of interaction, linking the given geosystem with other geosystems; (b) over a certain interval of time, a geosystem may become stronger through the incorporation of other systems and turn into a geosystem of higher rank, or it may break down under the impact of other geosystems.     

Soviet Geographic Literature

A review of geography publishing in the Soviet Union analyzes the output of literature by categories of end-users: (1) publications designed for professional geographers, including works on theory and method, university textbooks, periodicals and serials, and bibliographic and information services; (2) geographic publications intended for the public at large, including regional studies of different levels of sophistication on the Soviet Union and foreign areas as well as popular geography books; (3) geography textbooks and study aids for elementary and secondary schools, which represents the largest portion of geography publishing in terms of volume, with an average of 4 million books printed each year. Recommendations for improvements in geography publishing include the creation of a Council on Literature, made up of professional geographers; the establishment of a centralized publishing house that would specialize in geography (except for textbooks, government publications and special-purpose literature), and the establishment of a translation journal that would disseminate some of the more significant foreign articles in Russian translation.     

Basic Problems of the Transformation of Nature in Central Asia

A review of broad research problems leading to ultimate transformation of the Central Asian environment for the purpose of expanding irrigated agriculture and desert grazing. The problems are: land resources and reclamation needs for irrigation purposes; the water and salt regime of irrigated fields, regional types and methods of control; the water and salt budget of irrigated areas and means of determining and regulating it; the hydrologic cycle of Central Asia and ways of transforming it for irrigation purposes; and the use of forage and water resources for expanding the desert grazing economy.     

Fifty Years of Development of Soviet Geographic Thought

A review of trends in Soviet geography covers the increasing specialization of physical-geographic disciplines and attempts to integrate physical geography through landscape-study techniques and the theory of a physical-geographic envelope of the earth. Economic geography has focused on regionalization problems and the formation of territorial-production complexes. The controversy over the content of geography is reviewed, and cartography and regional geography are viewed as frameworks for the generalization of geographic information. The new constructive school of Soviet geography is described.     

Problems of Long-Term Geographic Prediction

A program of geographic prediction up to the year 2000 is proposed for inclusion in the teaching and research plan of the Geography Faculty of Moscow University. Three aspects are distinguished: (1) specific forecasting of changes on the face of the earth and in the use of resources, (2) the elaboration of methods of geographic prediction, and (3) prediction of future trends in the science of geography. The three key factors in specific geographic prediction are the hydroclimatic, the anthropogenic, and the resource factor. The principal method of prediction should be the study of chain reactions, of cause-and-effect relationships, allowing for flexible multivariate forecasts. In the science of geography, periods of differentiation and integration are found to have alternated at periods of 25 to 30 years. The most promising tendencies in geographic research are the hydroclimatic approach, the new synthetic disciplines, economic geography, and integrated mapping of geographic phenomena.     

Geographic Prediction of Anthropogenic Processes in Nature

A review of the growing problem of air and water pollution outlines remedial measures proposed by Soviet geographers. The increasing carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere may be reduced through plant selection of gigantic useful species capable of absorbing greater amounts of the gas and yielding larger quantities of organic matter. A continuing supply of clean fresh water may be insured through the division of the world's drainage systems into “arterial” and “venous” systems. In future water-management projects, power generation is expected to play a secondary role compared with water supply and irrigation.     

Fifty Years of Soviet Landscape Science

A review of Soviet landscape research, which focuses on the study of a hierarchy of natural geocomplexes, their origin, dynamics and structure, and physical-geographic regionalization. The main centers of landscape research thus far have been the universities. However, the utilitarian character of much of the research, with a direct bearing on agriculture, construction, urban planning and public health, suggests that government planning, designing and operating agencies should make wider use of geographers trained in landscape research.     

Statistical Perspectives on Geographic Information Science

Statistical geometry applies probabilistic methods to geometric forms. In the early days of the quantitative revolution statistical geometry appeared to provide a useful framework for geographic research, but its value appeared to decline in the 1970s and 1980s. Geographic information science (GIScience) addresses the fundamental issues underlying the geographic information technologies, and statistical geometry has proven valuable in a number of respects. Several classical results from statistical geometry are useful in the design of geographic information systems, and in understanding and modeling uncertainty in geographic information, and several statistical principles are observed to be generally applicable to geographic information. Modeling uncertainty in area-class maps has proven particularly difficult, and seven possible models are discussed. Statistical geometry provides an important link between the early work of the quantitative revolution in geography and modern research in GIScience.     

Some Achievements and Problems in Soviet Cartography

A review of the last 50 years finds that the traditional breakdown of Soviet cartography into its specialized research disciplines no longer conforms to current needs. Soviet cartography has been divided historically into mathematical cartography, map science (the study of maps and their uses), map compilation and editing, map design and production. A growing specialization in cartography by thematic disciplines (geomorphic mapping, agricultural mapping, etc.) with widely differing requirements and principles of compilation and editing suggests the need for a restructuring of the research disciplines. In addition to mathematical cartography, concerned with map projections and map measurements, the new structure would include: technical cartography (the study of source materials, map design and production); natural-historic cartography (principles of compilation and editing of maps of the physical environment), and socioeconomic cartography (concerned with the mapping of human phenomena).     

Regional Planning Problems in the Soviet Far East

A variety of approaches are being recommended in regional plans for future settlements patterns in the Soviet Far East. In Magadan Oblast, the present scattered pattern of small populated places is to be superseded by greater concentration of urban population in a set of subregional service centers. In Khabarovsk Kray, different approaches are being recommended for the future development of the Khabarovsk and Komsomol'sk areas. Because limitation of the future growth of Khabarovsk is desirable, new industrial establishments are to be located in the future in nearby small towns and urban settlements of the Khabarovsk industrial district. In the Komsomol'sk area, satellite towns are to be significantly developed, giving rise to a grouped form of urban settlement, including the tin-mining center of Solnechnyy and the paper and chemical center of Amursk. In Amur Oblast, consideration is being given to the development of an iron and steel plant in the Svobodnyy area, giving rise to a city of up to 200,000 population.     

Present Problems in Soviet Cartography and the Tasks of the Geographical Society

After having long existed as a technical discipline serving the needs of geographers, cartography in the Soviet Union has become increasingly a research discipline involving many common interests with geography. Collaboration between cartographers and geographers is becoming increasingly essential as more attention is being given to thematic cartography involving not only particular disciplines (geomorphology, economic geography, population geography) but what may be called an integrated “geographical” cartography. Much effort continues to be devoted in the Soviet Union to the compilation of regional atlases and to a wide range of thematic maps. Increasing attention is being given to the production of evaluative maps, assessing the potential use of the physical environment and natural resources. School maps represent a major part of Soviet map production. Tourist and hiking maps need to be seriously improved.     

The Conservation of Nature and the Geographic Sciences (as illustrated by the Ukraine)

The authors discuss the importance of geography teaching from the point of view of Communist indoctrination of students. The content of geography courses in Ukrainian schools is described and analyzed.     

Problems in the Building of Mathematical Models for Geographic Systems

Some basic concepts and principles of general systems theory applicable to geographical systems are formulated. A geosystem is viewed from the point of view of the controllable processes that convert it from one state to another and insure its self-regulation and stability. Since geographical systems derive energy from the surrounding environment and use it for their physical-chemical and biological functions, the structural elements of such systems behave thermodynamically like automata performing irreversible processes, and the laws of thermodynamics can therefore be applied to the functioning of such systems. A mathematical apparatus is demonstrated for the study migratory flows of mass and energy in geographical systems.     

Farming Problems in the Zones of the USSR and the Tasks of Soviet Geographers

The authors discuss changes in the geography curriculum under the Soviet school reform of 1958, which has replaced the basic seven-year school with a basic eight-year school and has extended the so-called middle school from ten to eleven grades.     

The Development of General Earth Science in the USSR During the Soviet Period

General earth science, or general physical geography, is viewed as one of three synthetic physical-geographic disciplines, the two others being landscape science, or regional physical geography, and paleo-geography. General earth science is concerned with the earth's geographic or landscape envelope as a whole and with its general patterns: the laws of zonality and integrity of the landscape envelope, the circulation of matter, rhythmicity, polar asymmetry and other regularities.