COMPARATIVE GEOGRAPHY OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES AND THE USSR: AN INITIAL INVESTIGATION

Several aspects of the distribution of institutions of higher education and their graduates are compared for the Soviet Union and the United States. The concentration of institutions and students is found to be greater in the USSR. Differences in regional enrollment rates relative to the location of institutions and students may be partly explained by differences in the curriculum structure of American and Soviet institutions of higher education and the greater degree of local control over higher education in the United States. A direct relationship exists in both countries between the percentage of graduates in a region and percentage urban and per capita income. Regional inequality in the percentage of graduates in urban versus rural areas is much greater in the USSR while regional inequality in the percentage of male and female graduates was only somewhat greater in the United States. Level of urbanization, migration of students and graduates, economic opportunity and economic structure are seen as important factors helping explain regional variation in the distribution of graduates.     

Specialization of Agriculture in Relatively Similar Natural Environments of the USSR and the United States

Four pairs of minor civil divisions in the United States and the USSR are compared to determine differences of agricultural land use in areas with similar soils and heat and moisture supplies. In the United States, crops exceed animal products as a source of farm income only in the driest area. In the Soviet Union, crops are the principal source of farm income in both dry and more humid areas. This is related to the fact that the United States produces forage grasses and forage root crops mainly in more humid areas, while the Soviet Union relegates forage crops to a secondary role after bread grains and industrial row crops. Grain yields in the United States rise markedly from drier to more humid areas. In the Soviet Union the highest yields are achieved in the moderately dry chernozem zone.     

THE SOVIET METROPOLITAN HIERARCHY: REGIONALIZATION AND COMPARISON WITH THE UNITED STATES

The rapid growth of Soviet cities is converging toward a hierarchy similar to that of the United States. The numbers of aggregate populations of metropolitan centers by five size categories in the two countries are compared for growth and change from 1939 to 1976. Also, nine Soviet urban regions are identified, mapped, and correlated with comparable American groupings. Growth rates of Soviet metropolises are normalizing with less recent variation as compared to the 1939–59 period, a trend that parallels the one in the United States. Also, it appears that certain functions, such as administration and transportation, are stabilizing factors in urban growth. Governmental policies of investment in underdeveloped regions, balanced growth and diversification may be partially thwarted by five-year planning goals that have stimulated supragrowth in large cities of the South and East. However, it seems likely that increasing mobility, amenities and the expansion of consumer goods and services will produce a reversal of trends toward higher growth rates in the metropolitan centers of the West. Projections to the year 2000 suggest that Soviet metropolises will have a larger share of the national population and a more uniform growth pattern than those in the United States.     

URBANIZATION IN THE USSR: PROBLEMS OF SPATIAL DIFFERENTIATION

The process of formation of settlement systems “in the USSR is conceptualized as proceeding at eight levels of a hierarchy corresponding to the system of economic regions, from a national system down to rayon-level systems. An important element in the present process of urbanization is the formation of urban agglomerations. The fact that these urban entities still lack juridical or even statistical status deprives urban and economic planners of a valuable data base for planning purposes so that the agglomerations often evolve in undesirable, uncoordinated ways. Greater attention needs to be given to the study of the internal structure of urban entities, a field neglected by Soviet population geographers. An undesirable tendency in Soviet agglomerations is to aim at continuously built-up territory, thus converting agglomerations into traditional compact cities, instead of making provision for open spaces for use in agriculture and forestry, recreation and communications.     

RECENT DEMOGRAPHIC AND MIGRATORY TRENDS AMONG SOVIET JEWS: IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY

A prominent authority on the Jewish population of the former USSR focuses on demographic trends and migration behavior (both within the former USSR and abroad), while also addressing the effect of Soviet state policy toward the Jewish population. Among the factors whose effects on population dynamics are examined, emphasis is placed on the Jewish population's concentration in large urban areas, the effects of emigration on age structure of the remaining population, self-identification as a method in census enumeration, ethnic intermarriage and family characteristics, and the outlook and prospects for emigres in Israel and the United States.     

A STRATEGY FOR THE DISTRIBUTION OF SETTLEMENT BSf THE USSR; AIMS,PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

A General Program of Settlement in the USSR, worked out by the Central Urban Planning Institute, envisages a long-term evolution of settlement that would help ameliorate the quality of life, insure industrial development of small and middle-size towns and help protect the environment. Two alternative strategies are envisaged: (1) an extrapolative strategy that projects long-term trends on the basis of past experiences and would enhance agglomerative processes in Soviet settlement; (2) a normative, goal-directed strategy that would seek to foster the evolution of planned and regulated systems of interconnected urban and rural places, and would gradually transform the present agglomerations along the lines of such normative systems. The prospective distribution of settlement under both strategies is mapped. Under the extrapolative strategy, the urban population share in areas with agglomerated forms of settlement would reach nearly 70 percent over the forecast period compared with 44 percent in 1970. The normative, goal-directed strategy would yield 60 large interconnected urban-rural systems, centered on the country's largest cities and accounting for 53 percent of the total population; 170 middle-size systems, centered on moderately large cities and including 26 percent of the population; and 325 small systems, centered on small and middle-size towns and including 14 percent of the population. About 7 percent of the population would remain outside the systemic structure.     

城市群对外服务功能量化解析——以山东半岛、中原和关中三城市群为例

城市流强度描述了城市对外联系的强弱。是表征城市对外服务功能的量化指标。三个省份的实证检验明显地揭示出城市流与城市中心性具有特别强的相关性。本文以山东半岛、中原和关中城市群为研究区域,通过城市流强度的计算与结构的分析,从城市流视角探讨城市群发展演化机理,揭示出城市群空间结构由简单的单核心结构到复杂的多核心结构的演化过程。文章根据城市流大小和及其产业分布情况,分析了城市群及其中心城市的二、三产业城市流强度与结构,得出城市群整体的对外服务特征,并据此提出改善和提高城市对外服务功能的措施。     

The Heat and Water Balance of the Earth's Surface,the General Theory of Physical Geography and the Problem of the Transformation of Nature

Two Soviet specialists in the geography of the United States analyze regional shifts in terms of the three major regions distinguished by Soviet geographers: North, South, West. The article, written before the 1960 census, is based largely on the Statistical Abstract of the United States for 1959 and earlier years as well as Current Population Reports. Problems of urban growth are also discussed, including traffic problems and population shifts to the suburbs.     

The Conception of a Unified System of Settlement and the Planned Regulation of city Growth in the USSR

A unified system of settlement, defined as an interrelated network of places that is regulated for the benefit of society, is viewed as the most effective approach to overcoming socio-economic differences between town and countryside. Such a settlement system is viewed as ultimately replacing the present settlement patterns ranging from large urban agglomerations at one extreme to small rural places without adequate services at the other extreme. The unified settlement system is expected to insure roughly equivalent living and working conditions for all people within such a system. Some of the recent changes in Soviet settlement patterns are viewed as steps in that direction: an expansion of the network of large cities in connection with the economic development of new regions; the policy of industrializing small towns bypassed by the previous development of industry; the growing practice of establishing research organizations and branch plants in small towns to foster their development; the mechanization and industrialization of animal husbandry; the improvement of rural bus lines, providing access to service centers.     

城市群作为国家战略:效率与公平的双赢

改革开放以来我国的区域战略和城镇化战略是根据不同的目的和需要而提出的,二者之间并没有建立内在有机的联系。以"科学发展观"和"五个统筹"思想为指导,以效率与公平的双赢为原则,提出了以大城市群为依托,将这两大战略有机结合起来作为国家战略的意义与构想。     

关中、中原、山东半岛三城市群产业结构与分工的比较研究

采用区位商、相对专业化指数和相对多样化指数等指标定量分析了关中、中原、山东半岛三城市群的产业结构、专门化和多样化,并考察了它们与城市群发展之间的关系。通过指标计算与回归分析发现,目前三城市群总体上,相对全国而言的偏高的产业专门化和偏低的多样化,不利于城市群的发育;沿海和内地城市群的产业在发展动力方面存在着差异,沿海对产业多样化较敏感,而内陆则不显著;产业专门化不利于城市群发展,而多样化对城市群发展有一定的正向作用,但短期内作用并不明显。     

基于中部地区崛起的城市群整合发展

为协调区域发展,实现经济持续增长,国家作出了"中部地区崛起"这一重大决策。中部6省分别拥有中原城市群、武汉城市圈、长株潭城市群、环鄱阳湖城市群、皖江城市带和太原城市圈等6个城市群,城市群的整合发展在推动中部崛起进程中发挥着越来越突出的主导作用。在对中部地区城市群的现实基础与综合实力进行分析、评价的基础上,提出了基于中部崛起的城市群整合发展的总体意向和要解决的关键问题。整合发展的总体框架为:以武汉城市圈为核心增长板块,中原城市群和长株潭城市群为北、南牵引增长版块,沿交通大动脉京广铁路和长江黄金水道构筑两条南北、东西向城市群发展核心轴带,6个城市群并力互推,形成纵贯中部地区的"倒Y"字形发展格局。     

SUBSTITUTION OF NATURAL GAS LIQUIDS FOR PETROLEUM IN THE SOVIET PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY

This paper examines the prospects for switching the Soviet petrochemical industry from an oil to a gas base, by substituting more natural gas liquids (NGL) for the light petroleum fractions currently used. In other countries with a large domestic gas industry, such as the United States, the petrochemical industry is based largely on natural gas liquids (NGL). Thus, with the accelerating development of its own gas industry (now the largest in the world), the USSR has the potential to change its feedstock mix to take advantage of increased NGL supplies, freeing more of the light petroleum fractions for other uses, such as transportation. However, changes in feedstock usage have been in the opposite direction, with increasing reliance on refined petroleum liquids, with little of the available NGL being used for petrochemicals. This is partly because of differences in regional availability of NGL: most of the Soviet petrochemical industry is concentrated in the Volga-Urals region, while most of Soviet hydrocarbons now are produced in West Siberia. Another factor is the small size and limited capabilities of the Soviet gas processing industry.     

PECULIARITIES IN THE FORMATION OF POPULATED PLACES ON THE SEABOARD OF THE USSR

A number of investigators have noted a movement of Soviet population toward the seacoasts, contrasting with the nation's traditional inland development. The pull of the coast has been linked to the increasing foreign trade of the USSR and to greater involvement in ocean affairs in general. The author analyzes the recent growth of maritime urban places in terms of the nation's major maritime regions: Azov-Black Sea, Baltic, Caspian, Pacific and Arctic, compares the rates of urban population growth and discusses some of the factors that account for differences in regional development.     

中苏同盟在抗美援朝战争中的作用

1950年2月14日中苏两国政府缔结的《中苏友好同盟互助条约》,虽然不是针对美国的,但中苏同盟的建立在中国人民抗美援朝战争中发挥了极为重要的作用。苏联是中国人民进行抗美援朝战争的强大后盾。《中苏友好同盟互助条约》在抗美援朝战争中有力地牵制了美国,使其不敢将战争扩大到中国境内;苏联对中国和中国人民抗美援朝战争提供了有力的军事援助;苏联积极帮助中国打破西方国家的经济封锁,大力援助中国建设工业基础;苏联在外交上坚决同美国孤立中国的政策作斗争。这些对中国人民取得抗美援朝战争胜利和完成国民经济恢复,提供了强有力的支援和保证。     

中国中西部地区就近城镇化空间演变及类型分异

就近城镇化是中西部地区协同推进新型城镇化和乡村振兴战略要求的现实路径选择。通过构建就近城镇化空间演变类型划分方法,从整体区域和城市群两个尺度,分析2000—2015年中西部地区就近城镇化的空间类型分异特征。研究发现：(1)整体区域尺度,中西部地区就近城镇化水平持续上升,东西差异不断加大、南北差异不断减小,本县优势型空间单元占主体;且可划分为17种空间演变类型,其中,中水平正增长本县优势型、低水平正增长本县优势型、高水平正增长本县优势型和低水平正增长本镇优势型是主导类型;(2)城市群尺度,中西部城市群地区的就近城镇化发展水平和增长速度远高于非城市群地区,且呈现明显的群际分异和群内分异,且城市群地区的就近城镇化空间演变类型可划分为多峰—多重尺度、多峰—中长尺度、多峰—中小尺度、单峰—中长尺度、单峰—小尺度等5种模式。     

The Ernest Gellner Nationalism Lecture: The Soviet Union,self‐determination,and the creation of the postwar human rights system

The USSR played a key role in the establishment of the post‐World War II human rights system despite its repressive and even murderous domestic record. It forged an alliance with the countries of the Global South in support of decolonization, self‐determination, and social and economic rights, policies opposed by liberal states like the United States, Great Britain, and France. These positions were deeply rooted in the socialist tradition. Moreover, when a human rights movement emerged in the mid‐1960s, its members—in its origins overwhelmingly from the intelligentsia—called not for the overthrow of the Soviet Union but for the fulfilment of Soviet law. The language of rights, proclaimed with such flourish in the 1936 constitution and its successor in 1977, served as the weapon hurled by dissidents as they called on the Soviet government to respect freedom of speech and assembly, and national rights, including the right to emigrate. In turn, the international human rights movement developed from the 1960s to the 1990s largely through support for the Soviet dissident movement, Amnesty International, and Human Rights Watch prime examples. The Soviet experience is critical to any global history of human rights.     

中国城市群“文—旅—科”产业融合发展水平攀升规律的定量模拟与验证

在城市群的形成发育过程中，伴随着城市群内部文化、旅游、科技产业资源优化再配置和协同集聚效应的共同作用，城市群“文化—旅游—科技”产业融合发展水平表现为随时间序列呈指数式增长的攀升态势。本文通过对城市群“文—旅—科”产业融合发展水平攀升规律的基本原理进行分析，建立相关数理模型得到几何表达式；继而构建城市群“文—旅—科”产业融合发展的评价指标体系，运用引入时间调整系数改进的耦合协调度模型，计算得到中国城市群及所辖城市的产业融合发展水平并进行时空演化分析；最后使用模拟验证的方法对中国城市群“文—旅—科”产业融合发展水平攀升规律进行拟合验证，探究中国城市群的产业融合发展路径。     

POLICY ISSUES IN AMERICAN SECURITY POLICY AND POLICY-MAKING USING AND CONTROLLING NEW WEAPONS

NATO may be confronting a crisis over the cruise missiles. Some allies may seek longer-range, nuclear-armed missile which could enable them to strike at Soviet MR/IRBMs and at other targets inside the USSR; others (along with many Americans) aim at restricting both the range and the missions of cruise missiles. The first option could jeopardize detente, inhibit further progress in SALT and conceivably weaken American control over the uses of nuclear weapons in time of war. The second could cause strains between the United States and its European allies. The best policy would seem to be to (1) delay any decision on cruise missile development and deployment in Europe; (2) seek a two-year freeze on all deployment of new nuclear delivery vehicles in Central Europe and of additional Soviet SS-20 IRBMs; (3) use this “breathing space” to seek agreement on the limitation of cruise missiles, MR/IRBMs and other “gray area” weapons in the region “from the Atlantic to the Urals.”     

基于居民出行大数据的我国都市圈识别及其分布格局

都市圈是大城市发展到一定阶段的产物,当前都市圈空间范围界定还存在争议,本文梳理了都市圈的概念和内涵,采用手机信令出行数据识别了全国都市圈的空间分布格局。分析发现,我国大部分都市圈仍处于发育阶段,当出行率阈值为 1% 时全国识别出 27个都市圈。都市圈的分布格局与经济发展水平密切相关,经济发达地区的都市圈数量多、分布密集,如东部沿海和城市群地区。中心城市的人口和经济规模,以及圈域出行距离影响了都市圈的空间范围和圈内联系程度,圈域出行规模与中心城市人口规模呈正相关,外围城市向中心城市的出行率与中心城市经济首位度呈正相关,且符合距离衰减规律。