Avian Remains from Khonkho Wankane,an Urban and Ceremonial Center in the Southern Lake Titicaca Altiplano

The urban and ceremonial center Khonkho Wankane flourished in the southern Lake Titicaca Altiplano region during the Late Formative prior to the rise of Tiwanaku as a dominant urban center. This site yielded an avifaunal number of identified specimens (NISP) = 631, with a minimum of 26 taxa represented among 539 skeletal elements or fragments. A total of 92 egg shell fragments also were recovered. The avifauna inhabited two major ecological zones: Lake Titicaca, its margins/wetlands and other water margins; and the dry Altiplano grassland (or puna). Lake/wetland taxa include Phoenicopterus chilensis (Chilean flamingo), Nycticorax nycticorax (night heron) and multiple taxa in the Order Anseriformes (ducks, geese, etc.) including Chloephaga melanoptera (Andean goose), Anas georgica (yellow‐billed pintail), A. flavirostris (speckled teal) and Oxyura jamaicensis (Andean ruddyduck). Also present are Fulica ardesiaca (Andean coot), Gallinago andina (puna snipe), Himantopus mexicanus (black‐necked stilt) and Charadrius alticola (puna plover). Puna taxa include Nothoprocta cf. ornata (ornate tinamou), Nothura cf. darwinii (Darwin's nothura), Metropelia sp. (ground doves), Athene cunicularia (burrowing owl), and multiple Passeriformes (songbirds, etc.). Taxa with a cosmopolitan distribution include Falco cf. femoralis (aplomado falcon) and Tyto alba (barn owl). Taphonomic analysis indicates that the avifauna were used in ceremonial contexts, including multiple Falco cf. femoralis burials, and for dietary and possibly tool‐making purposes. Other sources of introduction into the site deposits likely include natural mortality of taxa directly inhabiting the site area. These findings are compared to the avifauna recovered from the Formative site of Chiripa along the Lake Titicaca margin, which included a much higher proportion of lake bird fauna. At Khonkho Wankane, the importance of wetland avifauna may have been enhanced by the alteration of the local environment to include qochas, or artificial reservoirs/ponds, and continued despite reliance upon multiple domesticated plant and mammal species. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Hunting,Herding, and Caravanning: Osteometric Identifications of Camelid Morphotypes at Khonkho Wankane,Bolivia

Khonkho Wankane is a ceremonial center located in the southern Lake Titicaca Basin, Bolivia. During the Late Formative period (AD 1–500), its residents practiced agropastoral lifeways and participated in the rise of the state at Tiwanaku. Like at many Andean sites, bones from the family Camelidae are the most abundant large mammal in domestic contexts. Identifying camelid morphotypes represented by these bones carries far‐reaching implications for understanding past hunting, herding, and caravanning practices, and their roles in larger social and economic webs. Identifications were based on a locally focused reference collection, including llamas (Lama glama) from the immediate vicinity of the site, as well as Andean guanacos (Lama guanicoe), a much smaller morphotype than the Patagonian guanacos used in many osteometric studies. Multivariate statistical analyses and incisor morphology identified all four camelid. Different analyses suggest that the crux of osteometry lies in the reference collection, not the statistical test. An additional, very large morphotype likely corresponds to a castrated llama, the preferred cargo animal among modern drovers. The presence of these animals is interpreted as evidence that groups hunted vicuña (Vicugna vicugna) and guanaco, which are not currently present around the site, herded llamas and alpacas (Vicugna pacos), and perhaps organized caravans with castrated llamas. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Herpetofaunal Remains from Khonkho Wankane,an Urban and Ceremonial Centre in the Southern Lake Titicaca Altiplano: Unique Behavioural Correlates to Osseous Taphonomy

This research reports the herpetological (reptile and amphibian) remains from Khonkho Wankane, an urban and ceremonial centre in the southern Lake Titicaca region of the Bolivian Altiplano, which fluoresced during the Late Formative period. The total n = 1710, including a minimum of six taxa and representing a significant portion of the relatively depauperate modern herpetofauna recorded for the Lake Titicaca area. A lizard of the genus Liolaemus (Tropiduridae) was identified. Amphibians are represented by Andean toad Rhinella spinulosa (Bufonidae) and by at least four taxa of frogs: [cf. Gastrotheca marsupiata (Hylidae) and Pleurodema marmorata or P. cinerea and Telmatobius spp. (Leptodactylidae)]. The latter genus does not include members of the giant variants (T. culeus) that dwell in Lake Titicaca. The question of how these remains were incorporated into the site deposits is examined taphonomically. No indicators of human or small carnivore predation were detected. Significant spatial clustering of amphibian remains was detected, with two clusters contributing n = 1562 or 92.4% of the amphibian total (n = 1690). These concentrations also are characterised by a depressed ratio of cranial versus postcranial elements, which cannot be explained by recovery methods. These concentrations of herpetofaunal remains likely represent in‐burrow deaths of species sheltering for thermoregulatory benefits away from this harsh Altiplano environment, with the lowered recovery of cranial elements hypothesised to have resulted from a lack of ossification. The bulk of herpetofaunal remains recovered therefore likely were recent intrusions into the site deposits and do not represent the residue of human exploitation during the occupation of Khonkho Wankane. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mammalian Microfaunal Remains from Khonkho Wankane (Late Formative Period), Mollo Kontu (Middle Horizon Period) and Pukara de Khonkho (Late Intermediate Period) in the Bolivian Altiplano

Paleoecological and taphonomic analysis of the mammalian microfauna from three Bolivian altiplano sites is presented: Khonkho Wankane [Late Formative period; number of identified specimens (NISP) = 1019], Mollo Kontu (Middle Horizon period; NISP = 610) and Pukara de Khonkho (Late Intermediate period; NISP = 165). The following species, all of which are present in this region today, were identified: Akodon boliviensis (Bolivian grass mouse), Andinomys edax (Andean mouse), Auliscomys sublimis (Andean leaf‐eared mouse), Cavia porcellus (guinea pig/cuy), Chinchilla chinchilla (chinchilla), Ctenomys leucodon (white‐toothed tuco‐tuco), Eligmodontia puerulus (Andean gerbil mouse), Galea musteloides (common yellow‐toothed cavy), Lagidium viscacia (vizcacha), Neotomys ebriosus (Andean swamp rat),and Oligoryzomys destructor (destructive pygmy rice rat). Some direct human involvement with the deposition of some of the larger species (Cavia porcellus, Chinchilla chinchilla, Ctenomys leucodon and Lagidium viscacia) was noted, although C. porcellus was identified only from a single element from Mollo Kontu. Most deposition was likely due to natural in‐burrow deaths and other natural attrition of these species. No significant shift in environment during the occupation of these sites was detected. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Nohmul,Belize: 1982 Investigations

Abstract

The large site of Nohmul in northern Belize has a long sequence of occupation spanning Some two millennia. Half a century of sporadic excavation has shown it to be a center of regional importance from the Late Formative to the Early Postclassic. The present report outlines past and planned study of Nohmul, and describes the results of excavations and mapping in 1982. Principal discoveries in the ceremonial center date to the Terminal Formative/Early Classic and Terminal Classic/Early Postclassic periods, ca. 200–300 A.C. and ca. 800–1000 A.C. respectively.     

DATING THE CONSTRUCTION OF EARLY LATE WOODLAND EARTHEN MONUMENTS AT THE JACKSON LANDING SITE IN COASTAL MISSISSIPPI

Abstract

Middle Woodland and early Late Woodland monuments generally have been interpreted as ceremonial spaces that integrated communities both within and among regions. This article presents information on the early Late Woodland component at the Jackson Landing site, a large site with a platform mound and semicircular earthwork, located on the Mississippi Gulf Coast. Earlier research is synthesized with more recent investigations of the mound to argue that the site’s monuments were built during the early Late Woodland period between approximately A.D. 400 to 700. Determining when Jackson Landing’s monuments were built is important because their construction provides a temporal baseline for regional and, perhaps, interregional social integration along the central Gulf Coast.     

Small Community Organization During the Late Formative Period in Oaxaca,Mexico

Abstract

Late Formative (ca. 300–100 B.C.) cultural systems of highland Mesoamerica have been studied mostly at the regional level and at the tops of local settlement-system hierarchies. We know much less about the structure of small communities. Data from a minor Oaxacan site are used to identify two aspects of this community's internal and external organization: 1) a status-graded set of household units headed by an elite family, itself part of a valley-wide ruling stratum, and 2) workshop-level ceramic production for supra-community consumption.     

Isotopic Evidence for Camelid Husbandry During the Formative Period at the Pacopampa Site,Peru

ABSTRACT

Camelids were domesticated in the Andean highlands, such as in the puna habitat, and dispersed into lowland areas and the northern Central Andes. As camelids domesticated in a particular region would have had a greater economic benefit than visiting- or hunted wild camelids, it is important to reconstruct the dispersal of camelid husbandry from its initial site throughout the ancient Andean civilisation. We carried out multi-isotope analyses of animal remains recovered from the Pacopampa site to investigate the nature of camelid pastoralism and utilisation. Strontium and oxygen isotope ratios from tooth enamel suggested that camelids in the early Late Formative Period (800–500 BC) were born near the site and remained in the same habitat for up to three years. Although corresponding data for the Middle Formative Period (1200–800 BC) were not available, carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios were statistically different from those of the Late Formative Period, supporting the possibility that the camelids inhabited the highland plateau like puna. It is inferred that in the northern highlands camelids were initially rare and regarded as either tribute or ritual animals, or they were used as pack animals. Camelid husbandry using maize as fodder began during the Late Formative Period at Pacopampa.     

A Multi-Method Approach to Reconstructing Occupational History and Activity Areas: A Case Study at the Formative Site of Tlalancaleca,Central Mexico

While surface collection constitutes an important component of field research at the site and regional levels, the association between surface and sub-surface materials needs to be examined through independent lines of evidence. This study employed manual bucket auger probing and soil geochemistry at the Formative site of Tlalancaleca, Central Mexico (800 b.c.–a.d. 250), to evaluate the results of surface collection and to understand the formation process of the anthropogenic landscape. The combined results at one of the largest architectural complexes at Tlalancaleca indicate that it was built during the Late Formative period (500–100 b.c.) and rebuilt during the subsequent Terminal Formative period (100 b.c.–a.d. 250), which is corroborated by radiocarbon dates. Moreover, the results suggest segregated uses of space such as cooking/storage, waste disposal, and craft production areas within the complex. Overall results demonstrate the effectiveness of this multi-method approach for reconstructing occupational history and activity areas.     

Excavations at E1 Remolino: Household Archaeology in the San Lorenzo Olmec Region

Abstract

Studies on the Olmec frequently focus on large centers and monumental works of art, often ignoring the important role of peripheral sites in regional hierarchies. Recent investigations at the Early Formative period (900–1500 b.c., uncorrected radiocarbon years) site of El Remolino help balance this “elite centered” focus by collecting household and community level data at a habitation area away from the regional center of San Lorenzo. Subsurface testing and extensive excavations produced evidence of living surfaces, features, and refuse disposal patterns, which together with phytolith data improve our understanding of a lower order Olmec site. El Remolino was established in the San Lorenzo phase as a permanent settlement whose inhabitants pursued fishing, hunting, gathering, and plant cultivation. The degree to which this site was politically or economically dependent on the elite center of San Lorenzo is unknown.     

Reassessing the Developmental and Chronological Relationships of the Formative of Coastal Ecuador

The Ecuadorian Formative was initially interpreted as a result of long-distance diffusion, and migration, more recent research has changed our perception of the Valdivia, Machalilla, and Chorrera culture complexes. In this analysis, these archaeological investigations are reassessed in order to reevaluate our understanding regarding the nature of these prehistoric cultures. Formative chronologies, distributions, interrelationships are reviewed in the light of Pre-Hispanic occupations in El Oro Province. Previous investigations on the Ecuadorian littoral are examined. Results indicate (1) Valdivia and Machalilla are part of the same ceramic tradition and (2) the interrelationships of these complexes to Late Formative Period ceramic sequences are more complex than previously assumed. (3) A major adaptive shift related to an increased dependence upon agriculture occurred during Valdivia VI–VIII, and continued into the Late Formative with the widespread distribution of Chorrera related material culture. (4) Long-distance interaction with the Ecuadorian highlands resulted in the spread of what may be termed a Chorrera horizon and formed the basis of subsequent Andean cosmology where it was symbolically represented according to local and regional artistic canons and over a vast area of Andean South America.     

Feasting and Building an Urban Society at Cerro Jazmín,Oaxaca, Mexico

Here we present new excavation data from the urban site of Cerro Jazmín, Oaxaca, Mexico. Based on a comparative analysis of ceramic, faunal, botanical, and architectural evidence collected from a prominent city sector and a contemporary residence, we argue that feasting took place in the Sunken Patio Sector in the Late and Terminal Formative periods. Feasting strategies in an earlier occupation of the city sector employed a largely exclusionary strategy, giving way to a more corporate strategy in a later occupation. We take the findings from the Sunken Patio feasting complex as evidence of the formalization of Cerro Jazmin’s urban, regional role as a site of civic-ceremonial activity. Participation in this meaningful act of food consumption may have served to cement communal ties in a nascent urban society.     

Geophysical Investigations at Teotepec,Mexico (1000 B.C.–A.D. 1000)

Abstract

Recent investigations at the site of Teotepec in the Sierra de los Tuxtlas in southern Veracruz, Mexico explored Middle Formative through Late Classic (1000 B.C.–A.D. 1000) socioeconomic conditions. A central focus was the form and function of the site's distinctive architectural configuration, the Long Plaza Group. During the 2007 and 2008 field seasons, a systematic geophysical survey of Teotepec obtained initial information on the layout, orientation, and possible function of the site's central architectural core. Results from the survey allow for a clear definition of the site's Long Plaza Group in addition to the identification of a possible ball court along its eastern edge. It is also clear that Teotepecans incorporated natural features into their architectural core by placing a pyramid atop a volcanic landform and modifying a natural basalt flow in order to create a level plaza. Finally, the geophysical data indicate significant time depth in architectural construction by suggesting diffirent mound construction techniques, thus underscoring the importance of Teotepec as a persistent place in a region marked by significant population fluctuations in the Formative and Classic periods.     

Aztec period houses and terraces at Calixtlahuaca: The changing morphology of a Mesoamerican hilltop urban center

Abstract

Calixtlahuaca, a Middle–Late Postclassic site in the Toluca Valley of central Mexico, was occupied ca. a.d. 1100–1530. Our excavations reveal some of the processes involved in the creation, functions, and decay of a large hilltop urban center. At its height, the majority of the site’s surface (264 ha) was covered with residential-agricultural terraces supported by a complex water management system. House construction techniques included the use of adobe brick, wattle-and-daub, and stone pavements. Our fieldwork contributes to a growing body of research on hilltop political capitals in Mesoamerica. Using a refined chronology, we illuminate the processes by which people constructed the residential zones of this ancient hilltop city.     

A Ritual Spindle Whorl Deposit from the Late Classic Maya Site of E1 Pilar,Belize

Abstract

Excavations near the ceremonial precinct of El Pilar, an important Maya center in Belize, exposed a Late Classic period concentration of almost 200 broken limestone spindle whorls. A program of experimentation demonstrated that the whorls were purposely destroyed, possibly as part of a ritual event or events. Such rituals may have been part of a strategy to enhance the status of spinners by honoring deities associated with spinning.     

Auerbach,Madness, and the East

ABSTRACT

Erich Auerbach’s lack of interest in engaging with non-Western contexts and literatures has often led critics to identify varying degrees of Eurocentric bias in his work. This perception of bias obfuscates the depths of Auerbach’s thought regarding the non-European, who does have a central place in Auerbach’s overall vision, not only of philology and Western literature, but also of humanism and historical progress generally. This articles accounts for the centrality of the non-European in Auerbach’s notion of realism.     

Italian masculinities

Abstract

After both world wars Italy struggled to have territories in the Upper Adriatic, among them the port city of Trieste, included within its national borders. Italy’s hopes to utilize Trieste as a barrier against incursion from the east and the city’s symbolic importance as an outpost for the defense of italianità are well known, but the city’s role as a conduit to former Habsburg provinces in Central Europe remains overlooked. In fact, regional associations with Mitteleuropa, seen by those on the peninsula as indications that the city was distant or foreign, formed one facet of a regional identity which proved compatible with national expectations. From annexation in 1918, the competing visions of Trieste as a bulwark against the east and as a junction in Central Europe shaped local identity and carved a niche for the city within the national framework.     

RECENT GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS AND NEW INTERPRETATIONS OF ETOWAH’S PALISADE

Abstract

We discuss excavations conducted at Etowah’s palisade wall in 1962 and 1995 and geophysical data collected in 2008. Artifact collections indicate the wall was built during the Wilbanks phases (A.D. 1250–1375) and most likely during the Late Wilbanks phase (A.D. 1325–1375). Radiocarbon dates obtained from charred wall posts are ambiguous but do not contradict a Late Wilbanks phase date. We explore estimates of the labor required to build the palisade and conclude that the wall could have been built in a relatively short period of time by the labor pool living at Etowah. Comparison of the excavation and geophysical data allows us to argue that the wall surrounded most of the site, but it is unclear as to whether the entire site was enclosed. We also argue that bastions were not positioned at regular intervals along the palisade’s perimeter. Ultimately we suggest that Etowah’s palisade may have been built for purposes other than simply just defense.     

The costs of putting Valencia on the map: the hidden side of regional entrepreneurialism, ‘creative city’ and strategic projects

ABSTRACT

Strategic projects based on culture and sports have been one of the vectors of regional development since the 1990s. Accordingly, local and regional governments have drawn up entrepreneurial strategies to project their image internationally and foster investment and tourism. These developments have been described in Spain as ‘The Calatrava Model’ for putting a city/region on the map and for boosting tourism. However, from the study of the case of Valencia and four strategic projects (The Fifth World Meeting of Families, The America's Cup, Formula 1 and The City of Arts and Sciences), we will show how there is a hidden side to this paradigm, which boils down to an unsustainable, top-down system whose sole purpose is to gain and maintain political hegemony. We will also assess the medium and long term impacts of these projects in terms of: opportunity costs, snowballing debt, corruption, and an utter breakdown of democratic controls as a result of Valencia’s poor regional governance.     

Settlement and subsistence among the Early Formative Gulf Olmec

Mounting archaeological evidence suggests that floodplain resources, not maize (Zea mays) agriculture, were instrumental in the emergence of Early Formative (ca. 1500–900 uncal BC) complexity across Mesoamerica’s isthmian lowlands. The lion’s share of these data derives from the Pacific side of the isthmus; discussions of the Early Formative Olmec along Mexico’s southern Gulf lowlands have not kept pace. This paper presents settlement and subsistence data that highlight the role of floodplain resources in the development of Gulf Olmec politico-economic complexity. These data support a non-agricultural alternative to traditional models of Gulf Olmec emergence at San Lorenzo, the premier Early Formative Gulf lowlands center. Increased productivity of maize toward the end of the Early Formative period challenged San Lorenzo’s extant politico-economic basis, bringing about a short-term, hyper-acceleration of elite competitive displays. Ultimately, the adoption of maize agriculture generated a reorganized Middle Formative period (ca. 900–400 uncal BC) landscape in and around San Lorenzo. This agrarian adjustment saw occupation move out of the floodplain and into the upland areas, a process sometimes characterized as a cataclysmic system collapse in the Coatzacoalcos basin.