Testing the Efficiency of Simple Flakes,Retouched Flakes and Small Handaxes During Butchery

Handaxes, simple flakes and retouched flakes are three types of stone tools whose adaptive advantages are highly debated. Interpretations of these technologically different tools suggest that their adequacy for butchery is uneven. Although some experimentation has been made in this regard, further research is needed to understand which of these tool types are more efficient for butchery, thus granting adaptive advantages to the hominins who used them. The present experimental work shows that small handaxes provide higher return rates in butchery activities than simple and retouched flakes. Efficiency (measured in time) is significantly positive in handaxes compared to the other tools when defleshing. In contrast, when comparing the three stone tool sets (simple flakes, retouched flakes and handaxes), the return values obtained for disarticulation are very similar. This study also shows that cut marks do not occur randomly and are less stochastic than previously assumed. Defleshing leaves a preferential cluster of cut marks on mid‐shafts from long bones and even on these sections, depending on element type, patterns are statistically demonstrable.     

NEOLITHIC ‘GREENSTONE’ AXE BLADES FROM NORTHWESTERN ITALY ACROSS EUROPE: A FIRST PETROGRAPHIC COMPARISON*

Neolithic polished stone axe blades, manufactured with uncommon lithologies such as Alpine eclogites, jades and other HP metaophiolites, were exploited from primary and secondary occurrences in Piemonte and Liguria and dominate the north Italian and south‐east French polished stone blades used as functional tools (for deforestation and woodworking). In other European countries the same lithologies are found less frequently or only occasionally as axe blades; in north‐west Europe they were frequently used for manufacturing ceremonial axes that have shapes that are not present in the Italian Neolithic tradition. This paper undertakes a preliminary examination of the case, prevalently from a petrographic point of view, comparing the well‐established Italian petroarchaeometric knowledge with the rather poorer petrographic basis of the European eclogite/jade axes. A provisional picture of the distribution of these axes in Europe is provided and some interim interpretations and open problems are discussed.     

STRIKING THE BALANCE: THE ROLES OF PETROGRAPHY AND GEOCHEMISTRY IN STONE AXE STUDIES IN IRELAND*

There has been a long but sporadic history of research on stone axes in Ireland, leading to the formation of the Irish Stone Axe Project (ISAP) in 1990. The purpose of this paper is to outline the research strategy of the project and to indicate the petrological techniques that are being applied in parallel with archaeological and archival studies to classify and identify potential sources for Irish stone axes. These include macroscopic studies, transmitted and reflected light microscopy on polished thin sections and X-ray fluorescence analyses. The results of the macroscopic examination of 15916 axes indicate that one rock type, porcellanite, was the dominant source, but that a wide range of other lithologies was also exploited. Several avenues for more detailed research are highlighted. A case study of gabbro axes demonstrates the value of this systematic approach to stone axe studies, and the results of this study suggest that some of these axes are petrographically consistent with British Group I, presumed to originate from sources in Cornwall, south-west England.     

云南云龙坡头出土铜斧的科学分析

为研究滇西特别是古哀牢地区的古代铜器制作技术,采用金相显微镜、扫描电镜能谱分析等实验方法,对滇西云龙县坡头村出土的11件铜斧进行分析与研究。结果表明:云龙铜斧材质以Cu-Sn二元合金为主,另有Cu-SnAs三元合金。普遍存在硫化物夹杂,铸造与锻造两种制作技术并存,以锻造为主。11件样品中均进行过冷加工。本研究对认识古哀牢地区铜器制作技术与该地区青铜文化有一定的价值。     

Identifying a Roman Casting Pit at Tel Dor,Israel: Integrating Field and Laboratory Research

Abstract

The functional identification of industrial features is difficult when few characteristic artifacts are preserved. We studied a Roman-period pyrotechnological feature at Tel Dor, Israel, where the only possibly diagnostic ceramic artifacts were found in fill between the walls and above the floor, rendering their association with the feature itself uncertain. The ceramic artifacts included coarse slabs and fragments of utilitarian vessels, some vitrified with adhering bronze droplets or slag-like residues. Analysis of the sediments within and around the industrial feature, using an X-ray fluorescence spectrometer on-site, revealed high concentrations of copper and lead, indicating metallurgical activity. Lead isotope analyses showed that the slag-like residue adhering to a ceramic fragment had the same isotopic values as the sediments, implying that the fragment was associated with the activities carried out in the feature. Microscopic and chemical analyses of the slag-like residue demonstrated that it was produced from melting leaded bronze. Some of the ceramic fragments contained elongated impressions on their inner surfaces, similar to those of casting molds found at other sites. We propose that the feature was used as a casting pit for bronze objects.     

Collapsing Commodities or Lavish Offerings? Understanding Massive Metalwork Deposition at Langton Matravers,Dorset During the Bronze Age–Iron Age Transition

The discovery of 373 intact and broken tin‐bronze socketed axes accompanied by 404 fragments in four pits at Langton Matravers collectively represents one of the largest hoards found to date in prehistoric Britain and Ireland. They were very probably never meant to be used as axes as the very high levels of tin they contain would have made them brittle. Many were poorly finished, with the majority still containing their casting cores. The axes are typologically dated to the Llyn Fawr metalwork phase (c.800–600 BC) and span the Bronze Age/Iron Age transition, when the production, circulation and deposition of bronze appear to have been substantially reduced throughout north‐west Europe. By placing the Langton Matravers hoard(s) in a broader metallurgical, material and archaeological context, existing theories for this phenomenon, such as the preference for iron, a collapse in bronze supply, or the sharp devaluation of a social or ritual ‘bronze standard’, are evaluated. It is proposed that the Langton Matravers axes belong to a short phase in the centuries‐long processes underlying the changing roles of bronze and iron.     

METALLURGY OF BRONZE USED IN TOOLS FROM MACHU PICCHU,PERU*

Although the tin‐bronze artisans’ tools found at Machu Picchu appear to have been cast to their final shape, examination of their microstructures shows that they were forged and annealed. As found, the tools were broken or cracked due to poor ductility of the bronze. Rolling and annealing of samples of bronze formulated with sulphur and iron additions to replicate the metal used at Machu Picchu show that the minimum amount of deformation needed to induce the observed recrystallization is a 12% reduction in thickness. The sulphur and iron impurities retard nucleation of new grains during annealing, but do not inhibit subsequent grain growth. Tensile tests show that while up to 10% porosity in cast bronze has no effect on hardness or initial strain‐hardening rate, it reduces the tensile strength and ductility enough to embrittle the metal. Hardness is an inadequate indicator of the strength properties of cast bronze intended for use in tools or weapons. The results show that when the metalsmiths at Machu Picchu started making bronze tools for use by stone and woodworkers, they had not mastered the art of making metal with adequate strength properties for this service. The forging and annealing procedure they used did not enhance the mechanical properties of their tools, and may reflect an inherited metallurgical tradition.     

Forty-Fourth Annual Congress,Liverpool, 1887

Abstract

The limestone quarried on Ham Hill near Yeovil in Somerset is very distinctive and readily identifiable. It was used extensively throughout the medieval period for a great variety of purposes. Whole buildings were constructed using it from floor to roof and it was also employed for decorative work and sculpture. A large group of church monuments was carved in Ham Hill stone, especially effigies and cross slabs. Monument production can be appreciated in the context of a much larger industry and analysis of the figures has revealed that the clients were predominantly the local gentry. Consequently, there are significantly more male civilian and female effigies than are typically found elsewhere, such as in Devon and Yorkshire. There is evidence of an awareness of the products from other stone centres in the south-west, which the carvers of Ham Hill stone were willing to imitate in order to satisfy customer requirements.     

PETROGRAPHY AND PROVENANCE INTERPRETATION OF THE STONE MOULDS FOR BRONZE DAGGERS FROM THE GALDONG PREHISTORIC SITE, REPUBLIC OF KOREA*

This paper presents material characteristics and raw material provenance of the stone moulds for bronze slender daggers from Galdong. This type of bronze dagger is uniquely distributed in the Korean Peninsula and these stone moulds were the first to be found by excavation. The stone moulds were made of igneous hornblendite with course-grained holocrystalline textures. Based on petrological, mineralogical and geochemical characteristics, the original rock materials of the moulds were inferred to be derived from the Jangsu or Namwon areas which are about 50 km away from the excavation site. It is a notable achievement that this provenance study confirmed the domestic production of Korean-styled daggers.     

The State of Traditional Stone Spouts in Relation to Their Use and Management in Kathmandu Valley,Nepal

ABSTRACT

Water resource management is a major challenge throughout the world. People still use traditional water harvesting and conservation techniques in many long-established societies. However, traditional methods are in decline or have been abandoned in many countries even though they are more efficient and cost effective than modern water harvesting techniques. Nevertheless, traditional approaches continue to be valuable in some countries, including Nepal. This research documents the state of such traditional methods, in this case stone spouts, in relation to their use and management within urban and peri-urban areas of Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. This study shows a somewhat surprising outcome that spout condition is better in unprotected areas than in protected areas.     

Identifying stone tools used in mining,smelting, and casting in Middle Bronze Age Cyprus

Abstract

Metallurgical production sites are often difficult to identify in the archaeological record because ore beneficiation and slag processing in the past involved the use of ground stone tools that were similar to those used in other contexts to prepare cereals and foods. Analysis of the ground stone assemblage from a Middle Bronze Age copper mining and production site at Ambelikou Aletri in Cyprus provided an opportunity to distinguish industrial and domestic ground stone tools and to identify the types of tools used in different stages of metal production. A comparison of tool morphologies, raw materials, and wear and breakage patterns from Ambelikou Aletri with those from contemporary domestic contexts, suggests that distinctions in the nature and structure of industrial and domestic tool kits do exist and those distinctions have an important role to play in identifying mining, smelting, and casting sites in the future.     

Quarrying and Production of Milling,Implements at Antelope Hill,Arizona

Abstract

To process mesquite, maize, and other substances, aboriginal groups living in the Lower Colorado-Lower Gila rivers region of SW North America used characteristic milling equipment: squared, flat-faced, convex-based metates (lower grindstones) with elongated manos (upper grindstones) and large wooden mortars with long, cylindrical stone pestles. Andesite and sandstone bedrock outcrops where stone was quarried and milling implements produced have been located. The archaeological deposits at the quarries have not been masked by the debris of later quarrying for rotary mills or building blocks, and thus the quarry sites offer an opportunity to study the production of ancient forms of milling implements, and provide insights into the organization of an ancient stone technology. Antelope Hill, a large arkosic sandstone quarry on the Lower Gila River in Arizona is presented as an example of a widespread phenomenon in the region. Analysis of quarry debris in the field and laboratory, experimental replication, and ethnographic and historical data, combined, have resulted in an understanding of this aspect of aboriginal technology.     

Ground stone tool production and use in the Late Upper Palaeolithic: The evidence from Riparo Dalmeri (Venetian Prealps,Italy)

Abstract

The site of Riparo Dalmeri yielded numerous flint, bone, and shell artifacts, as well as faunal and botanical remains, which are evidence of the Late Upper Palaeolithic (or Late Epigravettian culture, ca. 16,000–12,000 cal b.p.) occupation of the Alps region. The importance of the site is related to the discovery of 267 stones painted with anthropomorphic, zoomorphic, and geometric designs. Here we report on ground stone tools from Riparo Dalmeri investigated by means of an integrated technofunctional and experimental approach to reconstruct their production and use. The results support the hypothesis that the ground stone artifacts were employed in specialized activities (e.g., hide treatment, flintknapping) as well as in the production of some of the painted stone artifacts.     

COPPER AND BRONZE DURING THE ENEOLITHIC AND EARLY BRONZE AGE: A METALLOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION OF AXES FROM THE NORTHALPINE REGION*

This paper presents the results of a metallographic examination of Eneolithic and Early Bronze Age axes from the Northalpine region of central Europe. During this period, different types of copper were in use: arsenical copper, Fahlerz copper and tin bronze. We examine if and to what extent the different properties of the metals used were known to prehistoric metalworkers and actively manipulated in the production of the axes. The development of methods of casting and smithing is discussed. Both aspects contribute to our understanding of the nature of prehistoric technological change. During the Early Bronze Age of the Northalpine region, different traditions of early metallurgy can be identified, which differ in their use of Fahlerz copper, their attitude towards tin alloying and the use made of tin bronze in the production of the axes. These traditions can only be adequately described by reference to both composition—that is, access to different types of copper as well as tin—and knowledge of the production techniques provided by metallographic data.     

Slicing Cut Marks on Animal Bones: Diagnostics for Identifying Stone Tool Type and Raw Material

Abstract

Butchering implements leave identifying signatures on bones. From these signatures, it is possible to distinguish the different raw materials and types of chipped stone butchering tools. The results of recent experiments enable us to distinguish the different types of raw materials and tools used in the butchering process, in particular those implements that produce slicing cut marks. Three types of chipped stone tools (blades,flakes, and side scrapers) and raw materials (flint, obsidian, and quartzite), as well as issues relevant to lithic production and use were examined and tested. Silicone molds of cut marks produced by each of the instruments were made and subjected to analysis in light optical and scanning electron microscopes under various levels of magnification. The criteria used for distinguishing tool type, raw material, type of production and use characteristics of the respective cutting instruments are presented, as well as a discussion of the application of the experimental results to the Early Bronze Age I site of Afridar, Israel. The data from Afridar indicate that almost all of the butchering marks on animal bones from the site were made by stone tools, in particular haphazardly-made flakes.     

Rubble Stone Masonry Walls Strengthened by Three-Dimensional Steel Ties and Textile-Reinforced Mortar Render,Under Compression and Shear Loads

This article addresses the results of a structural strengthening solution for rubble stone masonry walls. The strengthening includes inserting three-dimensional steel ties across the thickness of the walls and a 30-mm layer of air-lime and cement mortar render reinforced with glass fiber mesh (textile-reinforced mortar), on both sides of the wall. The strengthening solution was found to be efficient for rehabilitating ancient rubble stone masonry walls due to the “three-dimensional” confinement, provided by the steel wires, by offsetting the low cohesive capacity of the mortar used in the walls and thus improving the mechanical resistance and delaying the collapse mechanisms. This study is part of an experimental research program carried out in Universidade Nova de Lisboa, to evaluate structural strengthening solutions for ancient rubble stone masonry buildings. To this end, three specimens of rubble stone masonry walls without strengthening (unreinforced masonry) and other three, with the mentioned strengthening solution, were subjected to compression and shear load tests. Building materials were also tested in order to characterize physical, chemical and mechanical properties.     

The Literature of English Post-Medieval Pottery

Abstract

A modern construction management technique—the Gantt chart—is used to examine how builders organized the erection of four surviving farm buildings for Sir Daniel Fleming of Rydal Hall between 1659 and 1688. His accounts allow detailed bar charts to be drawn to show the number of men employed on each trade and the duration and succession of their work.

As considerable savings could accrue from selling oak bark for tanning, tree felling was delayed until late Spring to ease bark peeling. Thus the use of unseasoned timber was encouraged, for barns had to be weather-tight by harvest time. These dual constraints imposed on builders a need to schedule their work carefully, however informally, if they were to meet their target dates.     

Radiocarbon Dating of Architectural Mortar: A Case Study in the Maya Region,Quintana Roo,Mexico

Abstract

The use of radiocarbon dating to analyze mortar and charcoal inclusions within mortar or plaster is a useful way to date the construction of architecture, particularly when options for other chronometric methods are limited. In the Yalahau region of northern Quintana Roo, Mexico, members of the Yalahau Regional Human Ecology Project have faced challenges in dating buildings made of large blocks of stone in the Megalithic architectural style. The Megalithic style poses serious problems for any analysis, as excavating into structures with stones weighing several tons can be dangerous, expensive, and time consuming. Additionally, there are no associated sculptures, texts with dates, or other traditionally accessible chronological markers. These factors have resulted in a reliance on a ceramic chronology despite the uncertainty of the dating of many ceramic types in this region, as well as the questionable contextual associations between recovered ceramics and architectural construction phases. Megalithic-style structures at the ancient Maya site of El Naranjal have residual mortar with charcoal inclusions left behind during the mortar-making processes that can be extracted and dated with AMS ¹⁴C methods. Several samples of mortar and charcoal were obtained from structures 1 and 10 from exposed exterior walls and an interior vault. The resulting dates confirm the date for the construction based on ceramics excavated from the same site.     

Typological Classification,Attribute Analysis,and Lithic Variability

Abstract

A typological research strategy can distort the analysis of Upper Paleolithic stone tools because it is ill-equipped to distinguish stylistic and functional similarity. This lack can make the significance of formal stone tool types in either culture-historical or behavioral analysis ambiguous. “Attribute analysis,” as it is being developed with French Upper Paleolithic materials, is introduced as an alternative strategy. The stylistic and functional analysis of burins in three Upper Paleolithic cultures, the Perigordian VI, the Proto-Magdalenian , and the Magdalenian II-III, is presented as an example indicating the advantages of one approach over the other.     

Light for Art Conservation

Abstract

High-intensity light from lasers is used for the surface treatment of works of art to bring about a cleaning or divestment, stabilization, sterilization, and renewed activation. The use of conservation techniques of laser divestment for textiles, leather, paper, pottery, bronze, glass and concrete have all been achieved and some are here described in detail. The author believes that through this type of work, science is repaying a debt to art, saving works of art from deterioration and ultimate destruction.