Four middle Holocene pillar sites in West Turkana,Kenya

Abstract

Megalithic architecture is associated with spread of food production in many parts of the world, but archaeological investigations have focused mainly on megalithic sites among early agrarian societies. Africa offers the opportunity to examine megalithic construction—and related social phenomena—among mobile herders and hunter-gatherers with no access to domestic plants. In northwest Kenya, several megalithic "pillar sites" are known near Lake Turkana, but few have seen systematic research. This paper presents the results of archaeological survey and test excavations at four pillar sites in West Turkana 2007–2009, and describes the sites' spatial arrangements, depositional sequences, and material culture. Radiocarbon dates suggest that pillar sites near Lothagam were used ca. 4300 B.P. (uncalibrated), just as early herding began near Lake Turkana, while pillar sites near Kalokol may be slightly later (ca. 3800 B.P.). Comparisons of material cultural point to possible differences in use of contemporaneous pillar sites, and suggest monumental architecture had multiple forms and purposes in middle Holocene Turkana.     

Some Evidence for Seasonality amongst Later Stone Age Hunter-gatherers in Southern Africa

Abstract

The Later Stone Age (LSA) period in Southern Africa is characterised by a succession of cultural traditions. The LSA hunter-gatherer populations were ancestral to the present-day San. They moved around in small bands, within a semi-fixed territory visiting open air and shelter sites to coincide with available resources.

The hunter-gatherers filled every niche in the environment, including the high mountains, deserts and semi-deserts, bush savanna and grass lands. They were well aware of the food sources available in their territories during the course of a year and utilized these opportunities. As winters in southern Africa are relatively mild, and most regions have foods available throughout the year, seasonality is difficult to demonstrate.

In only a few instances there is some evidence for seasonal use or seasonality. Age profiles of seals at Elands Bay Cave suggest short occupation periods during late winter and early spring. In the high mountains of South Africa and Lesotho, where winters are cold and frost and snow common, the faunal and floral remains suggest occupation during late spring, summer and early autumn. Abbot's Cave in the semi-arid central Karoo was used as a hunting lodge during September, relating to the lambing season and migratory behaviour of springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis).     

Palaeoenvironments and Cultural Sequence of the Florisbad Middle Stone Age Hominid Site, South Africa

Florisbad, an open-air spring site with 7 m of strata, has yielded the type assemblage of Middle Stone Age (MSA) fauna, the cranium of an archaic hominid in 1932 and an extensive sequence of MSA artefacts in the 1980s. The cultural assemblages include an early MSA dated broadly to 279,000±47,000 years, a highly retouched form of MSA at 157,000±21,000 years and a minimally retouched, expedient MSA assemblage from a series of occupation horizons at 121,000±6000 years. The latter represents multiple brief visits to a hunting and butchery site on the edge of an active spring pool, where periodic sedimentation gently buried occupation debris in a near-pristine context. Periods of lower spring discharge are represented by organic horizons as swampy vegetation encroached on the springs, while periods of higher spring discharge created pools. Overall the spring sequence indicates low-energy subaqueous environments similar to lakes, ponds or backwater sites. The sequence is characterized by fine sands, silts and clays responsible for the good archaeological preservation.     

Impact of Pollution at a Stone Age Rock Art Site in Oslo, Norway, Studied using Lead and Strontium Isotopes

Naturally occurring strontium and lead isotopes were used to study the impact of anthropogenic pollution on a c. 4500-year-old rock carving in Oslo, Norway. Strontium analyses have shown that road-salt from de-icing of a nearby road has accumulated in the soil surrounding the carving. Upon rainfall this salt is redissolved and drains over the rock carving. Analyses of the lead isotopic system have confirmed the impact of traffic from the nearby road on the rock carving site, but also indicate other sources of lead in the Oslo area and pollution in general. The rock carvings at Ekeberg are at high risk as, apart from natural weathering, they are exposed to the deposition of road salt, emissions from nearby traffic, local and long distance atmospheric pollution and meteorological inversion effects during the winter.     

Middle Bronze Age Ramparts: Functional and Symbolic Structures

Abstract

The Middle Bronze Age is a period of urban rebirth, with one of its hallmarks being massive earthworks surrounding cities. These structures have been studied extensively, with traditional interpretations of their function revolving around defensive aspects. However several scholars have called into question the validity of these interpretations, offering alternative explanations revolving around more “social” reasons. The present paper suggests that while the structures were constructed for protecting the city and its inhabitants, this only strengthens its “social” symbolism. Of major importance to its symbolism is the effect the ramparts had on the landscape, altering it permanently, and giving an impression of controlling the landscape.     

GEOCHEMICAL PROVENANCE OF OBSIDIAN ARTEFACTS FROM THE MSA SITE OF PORC EPIC,ETHIOPIA*

Obsidian geochemical analysis has become an indispensable tool in archaeological research and has wide applications. However, in spite of the abundance of geological and archaeological obsidian, there has been virtually no such investigation in Ethiopia. Recent instrumental characterization of 31 obsidian artefacts from the Middle Stone Age site of Porc Epic and numerous obsidian geological sources show that artefacts were being transported from as far as 250 km away. We believe this has relevance to the understanding of the emergence of modern human behaviour.     

Levallois Lithic Technology from the Kapthurin Formation,Kenya: Acheulian Origin and Middle Stone Age Diversity

The earliest fossils of Homo sapiens are reported from in Africa in association with both late Acheulian and Middle Stone Age (MSA) artifacts. The relation between the origin of our species during the later Middle Pleistocene in Africa and the major archaeological shift marked by the Acheulian-MSA transition is therefore a key issue in human evolution, but it has thus far suffered from a lack of detailed comparison. Here we initiate an exploration of differences and similarities among Middle Pleistocene lithic traditions through examination of Levallois flake production from a sequence of Acheulian and MSA sites from the Kapthurin Formation of Kenya dated to ∼200–500 ka. Results suggest that MSA Levallois technology developed from local Acheulian antecedents, and support a mosaic pattern of lithic technological change across the Acheulian-MSA transition.Les premiers restes fossiles d’Homo sapiens sont rapportés d’Afrique aussi bien à des avec des outillages de l’Acheuléen final que du Middle Stone Age (MSA). La relation entre l’origine de notre espèce au Pléistocène moyen final d’Afrique et le changement majeur marquée par la transition Acheuléen-MSA est par conséquent un moment clé de l’évolution humaine qui a manqué jusqu’ici d’analyses comparatives détaillées. Nous nous proposons ici de commencer à explorer les différences et les similarités qui peuvent se faire jour au Pléistocène moyen dans les traditions techniques à l’examen des productions à éclats Levallois, dans une séquence de sites acheuléens et MSA de la formation de Kapthurin (Kenya), datée de 200–500 ka. Les resultants obtenus suggèrent que la technologie Levallois MSA s’est développée sur ce substrat acheuléen et renforce cette perception que l’on peut avoir d’une mosa?que de changements technologiques jalonnant la transition Acheuléen-MSA.     

The Middle Stone Age south of the Limpopo River

Current interest in the origins of anatomically modernHomo sapiens has focused attention on early modern human remains and related archaeological materials associated with the southern African Middle Stone Age. While the anatomically modern status and a Last Interglacial or later age for the human fossils enjoy general support, issues related to the definition of the Middle Stone Age, its dating, and the interpretation of human behavior lack consensus. Available evidence suggests that the anatomically modern human skeleton appeared well before many aspects of the subsistence and symbolic behavior that characterize recent foragers and that Middle Stone Age technology persisted longer in southern Africa than its northern hemisphere counterpart.     

从“长途贸易”论到“内部根源”论——西方学者对英国中世纪市场的研究

近年来,国内学术界对西欧近代资本主义早期市场的研究日趋重视。然而,西欧早近代市场与前近代的中世纪市场有直接的转承关系,故而对早近代市场的研究迟早要上溯到中古市场。实际上,在西方对巾古市场的研究一直在商业史和经济史的范畴内进行。自19世纪末以来,西方学术界对中世纪商业和市场的研究大体上经历了一个从“长途贸易”论到“内部根源”论、再到“商业化”学说为主导的学术发展历程。这里我们主要以对英国的研究为主线作一简要评述。     

Zooarchaeology of the Middle Stone Age in Magubike Rockshelter,Iringa Region,Tanzania

African Archaeological Review - The analysis of the faunal remains from Middle Stone Age deposits of Magubike rockshelter was undertaken to contribute to the modern human behavior debate....     

The Middle Stone Age of East Africa and the beginnings of regional identity

The history of research into the Middle Stone Age of East Africa and the present state of knowledge of this time period is examined for the region as a whole, with special reference to paleoenvironments. The known MSA sites and occurrences are discussed region by region and attempts are made to fit them into a more precise chronological framework and to assess their cultural affinities. The conclusion is reached that the Middle Stone Age lasted for some 150,000 years but considerably more systematic and in-depth research is needed into this time period, which is now perceived as of great significance since it appears to span the time of the evolution of anatomically Modern humans in the continent, perhaps in East Africa.     

The Middle and Later Stone Age faunal remains from Diepkloof Rock Shelter,Western Cape,South Africa

The faunal sample from the Middle Stone Age (MSA) and overlying Later Stone Age (LSA) deposits of Diepkloof Rock Shelter (Western Cape Province, South Africa) includes at least 40 taxa, mostly mammals, but also tortoises, snakes, birds (especially ostrich represented by eggshell), and intertidal mollusks. The LSA sample contains only species that occurred nearby historically, including domestic sheep, which LSA people introduced to the region by 1800 years ago. In contrast, like other Western Cape MSA faunas, the Diepkloof MSA sample has more species and it is especially notable for five large extralimital grazing species. These imply a greater-than-historic role for grasses in the local vegetation, particularly in the post-Howiesons Poort (latest MSA) interval where the grazers appear most abundant. Extreme fragmentation and dark-staining impedes analysis of the MSA bones, but cut-marks, abundant burning, and numerous associated artifacts suggest that people were the main accumulators. Rare coprolites imply that carnivores could have contributed some bones, and concentrations of small mammal bones, particularly near the bottom of the MSA sequence, suggest a role for raptors. Tortoise bones are common throughout the sequence, and the MSA specimens tend to be especially large, as in other MSA assemblages. The LSA specimens are smaller, probably because LSA human populations were denser and preyed on tortoises more intensively. The most surprising aspect of the Diepkloof assemblage is its marine component. The coast is currently 14 km away and it would have been even more distant during much of the MSA when sea levels were often lower. Intertidal mollusks, particularly black mussels and granite limpets, are concentrated in the LSA and in the Late and Post-Howiesons Poort layers. Only LSA shells are complete enough for measurement, and the limpets are small as at other LSA sites. The implication is again for more intense LSA collection by relatively dense human populations. Both the LSA and MSA deposits also contain bones of shorebirds and Cape fur seals. Whale barnacles and occasional dolphin bones indicate that MSA people scavenged beached cetaceans.     

Site Reconnaissance in the Kipsing and Tol River Watersheds of Central Kenya: Implications for Middle and Later Stone Age Land-Use Patterns

Two seasons of archaeological site reconnaissance and geo-archaeological fieldwork in the Kipsing and Tol river valleys of central Kenya have resulted in (1) the location of 58 surface sites and 13 spot finds and (2) the excavation and dating of 11 alluvial stratigraphic profiles. These data are incorporated with our previous work in the study area to yield a preliminary interpretation of Middle and Later Stone Age tool technologies and land-use strategies during the Late Pleistocene period there. Specifically, the nature of the lithic inventories and observed distribution of archaeological sites suggests that people in the Middle Stone Age employed a patch choice resource and land-use strategy while those in the subsequent Later Stone Age period utilized a logistical strategy.Pendant deux saisons de la reconnaissance archéologique d'emplacement et des travaux sur le terrain geo-archéologiques les vallées dans de Kipsing et de Tol fleuve du Kenya central ont eu comme conséquence (1) l'endroit de 58 emplacements extérieurs et 13 trouvailles de tache et (2) l'excavation et dater 11 profils stratigraphiques alluviaux. Ces données sont incorporées avec nos travaux précédents dans le secteur d'étude pour rapporter une interprétation préliminaire de milieu et de stratégies postérieures d'utilisation de la terre de technologies d'outil de âge de pierre pendant la période pléistocène en retard là. Spécifiquement, la nature des inventaire lithic et la distribution observée des emplacements archéologiques suggère que les gens dans le âge de pierre moyen aient utilisé un choix de morceau (patch choice) stratégie de ressource et d'utilisation du territoire, alors que ceux dans la période postérieure suivante de âge de pierre utilisaient un logistique stratégie.     

Crossing the Line: The Early Expression of Pattern in Middle Stone Age Africa

This paper provides a synthesis of the currently known evidence for cross-hatch patterning on stone, ochre and ostrich eggshell from Middle Stone Age Africa, between 100,000 and 60,000?BP. The significance of the incised artefacts is that they are used as proxies for an early capacity for symbolic thought, and potentially the emergence of language to convey their meaning. Beyond their significance in theoretical debates, these marked objects demonstrate conjunctions in the expression of design, exhibiting vertical, horizontal and oblique incised or engraved lines, patterns that have been classified as cross-hatching. Yet very little attention has been paid to the patterns themselves. This paper examines the archaeological evidence and looks at why these patterns might be important from a perceptual perspective. Taking a neurological approach, it considers current knowledge of neural, and especially visual, plasticity and the interconnectedness of brain areas relating to vision, learning, memory and emotion.     

The Middle Stone Age human remains from Diepkloof Rock Shelter (Western Cape,South Africa)

In the course of recent excavations at Diepkloof Rock Shelter (South Africa), three human remains were found in the Middle Stone Age layers. These human remains are two pedal phalanges (intermediate and distal) from a fifth ray, which belong to the same individual, and a deciduous first lower molar. The layers in which they were found represent the end of the Howiesons Poort and the beginning of post-Howiesons Poort occupation, and are radiometrically dated to MIS 3, between 45 and 65 kyr ago. They are thus very close in time to the assumed period of anatomically modern humans (AMH) dispersal out of Africa into Eurasia, a period for which very few remains are available in the African fossil record. Here, we describe these new remains and compare their morphology and dimensions to samples of African and Eurasian Pleistocene and Holocene humans. Our results show that the human remains from Diepkloof Rock Shelter fall well within the range of variation of AMH. The phalanges are of very small size and indistinguishable from those of recent humans. In addition, our analysis of the dm₁ underlines a large size variation at the end of the MIS 4/beginning of the MIS 3 in the Western Cape. The discovery of human remains at Diepkloof Rock Shelter, albeit limited to three small bones, enriches a poorly represented chronological period of the African hominin fossil record.     

Possible shell beads from the Middle Stone Age layers of Sibudu Cave,South Africa

Recent excavations at Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, uncovered an Iron Age horizon below which is a complex 3 m thick Middle Stone Age sequence with post-Howiesons Poort, Howiesons Poort, Still Bay and pre-Still Bay layers. Available OSL ages indicate that the Howiesons Poort occupation is older than 60 ky and the Still Bay older than 70 ky. Here we present the archaeological context and the taphonomic analysis of six Afrolittorina africana, three of which bear perforations, from the Still Bay and Howiesons Poort layers of this site. The single specimen from the latter cultural horizon comes from the lowermost layer attributed to this technocomplex. This and the depositional context of this layer suggest that this shell derives, as do the other five, from the Still Bay occupation layers. Taphonomic analysis of the archaeological specimens based on present day Afrolittorina africana biocoenoses, microscopic examination, morphometry, experimental perforation of modern shells, and a review of the natural agents that may accumulate marine shells at inland sites, indicate probable human involvement in the collection, transport, modification, and abandonment of Afrolittorina africana in Sibudu. If confirmed by future discoveries these shells would corroborate the use of personal ornaments, already attested at Blombos Cave, Western Cape Province, by Still Bay populations. The apparent absence of ornaments at Howiesons Poort sites raises the question of the mechanisms that have led to cultural modernity since it seems to contradict the scenario according to which cultural innovations recorded at Middle Stone Age sites reflect a process of continuous accretion and elaboration interpreted as the behavioural corollary of the emergence of anatomically modern humans.     

Lithic Microwear Analysis of Middle Stone Age Artifacts from White Paintings Rock Shelter,Botswana

Abstract

Excavations conducted at the White Paintings rock shelter in the NW Kalahari Desert have uncovered seven meters of Later and Middle Stone Age deposits. Lithic microwear evidence was found on 15 artifacts representing five of the major archaeological subdivisions in the sequence and revealed work in wood, hide, and bone, as well as butchering and impact damage. Middle Stone Age points found in deposits bracketed by TL dates to between approximately 66,400 ± 6500 and 94,300 ± 9400 B.P. were of special interest because of the possible association of the Middle Stone Age with the origin of anatomically modern humans and because little, if any, micro-wear evidence has been published on Middle Stone Age points. Five out of 10 points examined revealed impact damage consistent with their use as projectiles, most likely as spear points. We present a model of the use of such points for hunting medium-sized mammals with spears, an interpretation that is largely consistent with faunal remains observed in South African cave sites.