An Early Pleistocene Phytolith Record from Wonderwerk Cave,Northern Cape,South Africa

Grass silica short cell phytoliths were sampled from the four lowermost archaeological strata in excavation 1 at Wonderwerk Cave and offer an independent record of climatic change during an episode of Early Stone Age hominin occupation at the cave. Linked to differences in growing season temperature and the geographic distribution of C₃ and C₄ grasses in southern Africa, fossil grass phytoliths were used to trace palaeoenvironmental shifts at the site. The results suggest that Early Pleistocene environmental conditions at the cave fluctuated: between wetter and drier summer–rainfall growing conditions (C₄) towards the end of the Olduvai subchron and the beginning of the subsequent interval of reversed polarity, to mostly dry and cooler winter–rainfall growing conditions (C₃), that continued throughout the interval. It ended with a shift towards increased summer rainfall aridity at around one million years ago. The fluctuation between markedly wetter and drier C₄ conditions at the cave (NADP-me grass types vs. NAD-me grass types) does not support the premise that the expansion of C₄ grasslands was always coupled with increased aridity.     

Revisiting the Parietal Art of Wonderwerk Cave,South Africa

Seen by all who visit Wonderwerk Cave, the rock paintings that adorn its walls have attracted less attention than many other aspects of the site. The paper gives a brief account of their history and significance and of factors that have constrained their study. Graffiti damage and restoration added layers through which researchers would need to delve in order to understand them archaeologically. Pointing to directions for future work, the paper concludes with discussion on a currently debated category of southern African rock art, the “non-entoptic” geometric rock art tradition, to which the Wonderwerk Cave rock paintings would belong. A shift in theoretical focus is advocated for comprehending local contingencies in the formation of rock art “traditions” rather than simply assuming the prior existence of such constructs.     

The Oldowan and Early Acheulean Mammalian Fauna of Wonderwerk Cave (Northern Cape Province,South Africa)

We describe and discuss the large vertebrates recovered from the basal layers (Strata 12 and 11) of Excavation 1 at Wonderwerk Cave, a site located in the Kuruman Hills, Northern Cape Province, South Africa. Stratum 12 is associated with a small core and flake Oldowan assemblage while Stratum 11 contains some Acheulean material. Based on palaeo-magnetism, the time span covered by these Strata is estimated to date to ca.1.8–1.1 million years ago. Taxa identified include late Makapanian forms, such as Procavia transvaalensis, Procavia antiqua, a hipparionine and an unnamed species of large caprine, also found in the Makapan Limeworks deposits, confirming the antiquity of these layers. The bones are highly fragmented due to the action of multiple agencies, both pre- and postdepositional, which prevented diagnosis in many cases to lower levels of taxonomy. In support of other palaeo-environmental proxies from Strata 12 and 11, the large mammal remains reflect a semi-arid ecotone palaeo-environment, consisting of a mix of taxa associated with broken, montane habitat and semi-arid grassland-savanna plains habitat.     

New Excavations at Border Cave,KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

New excavations at Border Cave use high-resolution techniques, including FT-IR, for sediment samples and thin sections of micromorphology blocks from stratigraphy. These show that sediments have different moisture regimes, both spatially and chronologically. The site preserves desiccated grass bedding in multiple layers and they, along with seeds, rhizomes, and charcoal, provide a profile of palaeo-vegetation through time. A bushveld vegetation community is implied before 100,000 years ago. The density of lithics varies considerably through time, with high frequencies occurring before 100,000 years ago where a putative MSA 1/Pietersburg Industry was recovered. The highest percentage frequencies of blades and blade fragments were found here. In Members 1 BS and 1 WA, called Early Later Stone Age by Beaumont, we recovered large flakes from multifacial cores. Local rhyolite was the most common rock used for making stone tools, but siliceous minerals were popular in the upper members.     

Laser scanning for conservation and research of African cultural heritage sites: the case study of Wonderwerk Cave,South Africa

The ‘African Cultural Heritage and Landscape Database’ project, initiated and directed by the senior author and administered by Aluka (www.aluka.org), is aimed at the creation of a digital library of spatial and non-spatial materials relating to cultural heritage sites in Africa. The archaeological site of Wonderwerk Cave (South Africa) is one of the 19 sites documented to date using laser scanning, conventional survey, digital photogrammetry and 3D modelling. To date, it is one of the few archaeological caves worldwide to be fully scanned. This paper explores the different uses to which the spatial data derived from this cave have been, or will be, put – for historical and educational purposes, scientific research and site conservation and development.     

Late Pleistocene coastal environment of the Southern Cape Province of South Africa: Micromammals from klasies river mouth

A sequence of samples of micromammalian remains from Klasies River Mouth on the south coast of South Africa provides evidence of vegetational and climatic change during the Late Pleistocene. The evidence suggests the presence of a vegetational mosaic similar to that of the present but with relatively more open vegetation at the time the central part of the sequence was being deposited than was the case at the beginning or the end. Fluctuations occurred in general climatic conditions, as indicated by the Shannon—Wiener index of diversity, but conditions appear to have remained relatively moderate throughout with no evidence of glacial or interglacial maxima. Changes in sea level are probably also reflected in changed proportions of various species of small mammal. The site has yet to be dated conclusively but the micro-mammalian data tend to support other lines of evidence which suggest that this sequence of deposits was laid down during isotope stage 5, probably substages 5d—a. Human response to the challenge of changing conditions can be shown to lag behind those changes as recorded by micromammals.     

The micromammalian fauna from Border Cave,Kwazulu, South Africa

The micromammalian fauna from Border Cave is analysed in terms of community composition and structure. Changes in these aspects are interpreted as indicative of changes in vegetation and climate in the vicinity of the cave during the period of deposition. It would appear that vegetation comprised relatively extensive forest or thick bush and dense grass during wetter phases and fairly open savanna woodland, even open grassland, during drier periods. Variation through time in mean mandibular size in two species of Crocidura (musk shrew) was different both in the two species and from what was expected. It now seems likely that the size change constitutes a response to complex phenomena and not simply to changes in temperature. Comparison with the Boomplaas A sequence indicates that the same general pattern of change is reflected at both sites but that there was a greater amplitude of change at Boomplaas A and that ¹⁸O stage 4 was dry at this site but wet at Border Cave. Evidence for periodic changes in the distribution of various species, and in some cases the mutually exclusive occurrence of ecologically equivalent species, has implications for the zoogeography of the species involved. In particular, the occurrence of Pelomys fallax (creek rat) in the lower half of the sequence is of interest in view of its present distribution 600 + km north of Border Cave.     

Rock Hyraxes (Procavia capensis) from Middle Stone Age Levels at Blombos Cave,South Africa

The ～100 ka Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave, southern Cape, South Africa, contain numerous rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) remains. It is often ambiguous to interpret rock hyrax remains from archaeological deposits deriving from cave and shelter sites in southern Africa as the agent or agents of accumulation may be difficult to establish. In this paper, the different taphonomic signatures separating anthropogenic from natural accumulations at Blombos Cave are considered. The analysis indicates that although a few specimens show evidence for raptor and carnivore accumulation, there is also substantial evidence that suggests humans preyed on these small mammals during different times of the year.     

Taphonomy of Micromammals from Cave Deposits at Kabwe (Broken Hill) and Twin Rivers in Central Zambia

Samples of Middle Pleistocene micromammals from cave deposits at Kabwe (Broken Hill) and Twin Rivers in Zambia were analysed according to Andrews's (1990) methods. In addition, behavioural and ecological data relating to possible predator species were examined for corrobation or contradiction of the mechanical evidence. Interpretation of the Kabwe sample is complicated by its unknown history since recovery and the possibility that the paucity of cranial remains results from their selective post-recovery removal from the sample. However, the combined evidence suggests that it was collected by barn owls whereas the Twin Rivers material perhaps accumulated at a spotted eagle owl nest site.     

Coastal eolian sands, paleosols, and Pleistocene geoarchaeology of the Southwestern Cape, South Africa

Narratives of Pleistocene prehistory for MIS 4 to 9 are primarily constructed on the basis of what appear to be subcontinuous archaeological records in cave sites, with subsidiary geo- and bioarchaeological research attempting to determine the nature of external environments and biotic resources from the inside, rather than the outside. The present study seeks to establish a detailed chronostratigraphy for faunal and archaeological sites linked with coastal sediments in the Southwestern Cape province. Accelerated shore deflation during glacio-eustatic oscillations of sea level deposited multiple eolianites, and textural changes of such calcified sands identify both transgressive and regressive sea level trends. These provide a proxy for local shore proximity, sometimes directly linked to ‘high’ sea level stands. Such sediments are subdivided into lithostratigraphic sequences by multiple paleosols, that range from ABC-soils to calcretes or plinthite/ferricrete horizons. Repeated intervals of solution or karstic activity created underground cavities that allowed fossil bone to collect in or below hyena lairs. Such fills further connect sedimentary units with pedogenic events, to integrate local stratigraphies into a regional lithostratigraphy that can be readily correlated with global chronostratigraphies (MIS stages and Dansgaard-Oeschger events), derived from polar ice and deep sea cores, as well as long stalagmite and pollen records. The faunal assemblages (see Table 9) of MIS 5 and early 4 were penecontemporaneous with pedogenic phases that record greater moisture during intervals when sea level oscillated a little below that of today. Dominated by larger grazers, such assemblages argue for a more open environment than the modern fynbos (sclerophyllous heath/brush) and specifically a land cover of higher productivity and nutritional status. Such conditions probably affected only a fraction of MIS 5 time. Middle Stone Age (MSA) assemblages are limited to late MIS 4 cave/overhang sites, also linked to such pedogenic phases, although an MSA-like site dates to MIS 5d. Older littoral sands, modified by plinthite development, include the Acheulian and faunal site of Duinefontein 2 that may represent MIS 9. Visible evidence for human occupation (including cave/overhang sites) during MIS 4 to 9 (see Table 9) was strikingly discontinuous in the Southwestern Cape begging questions about the number of prehistoric groups, demography, spatial patterning, and ecological context.     

Experimental determination of use wear on stone adzes from Boomplaas Cave,South Africa

To test the assumption that Later Stone Age adzes were used primarily for woodworking, replicas of adzes were made and used to chisel and to plane wood. The use wear on these replicas was then compared with that on 51 prehistoric examples from Boomplaas Cave in the southern Cape Province, South Africa. The results show that all the prehistoric adzes examined have wood polish, and that charcoaling was part of the technique of Later Stone Age woodworking at least as early as 14,200 bp.