20世纪50、60年代美国黑人社会状况浅析

黑人在美国历史上起过非常重要的作用,也对美国经济、文化的发展作出了巨大的贡献.尽管如此,黑人却一直处于美国社会的底层,一部美国黑人史就是一部美国黑人的抗争史.南北战争后,虽然奴隶制被废除,黑人争得了公民权,但是,他们并没有享受到作为美国公民应有的平等权利.相反,他们仍然生活在种族隔离的樊篱之下.     

美国黑人的取名与黑人文化身份

美国黑人奴隶同他们的非洲祖先一样赋予名字以重要的文化内涵,因此,虽然奴隶主试图剥夺黑人奴隶的姓名权和他们为子女命名的权利,使他们与自己的过去割裂开来,但是黑人并非消极地屈从于主人的意志,而是努力为自己争取这项做人的基本权利.在北美奴隶制的特殊社会环境和语言环境中,黑人对传统的非洲命名习俗进行了改造,力图以有自身特色的取名方式强调自己的文化身份.黑人的名字既体现出他们对美国黑人作为一个族裔群体的历史延续性,也体现出其文化发展的历史差异性.     

20世纪七八十年代美国黑人政治力量崛起的原因

20世纪七八十年代美国黑人政治力量的崛起,是美国政坛一个令人瞩目的现象。究其原因,是黑人大规模城市化、黑人中产阶级力量壮大、黑人政治意识增强及黑人合法主义传统等多方面因素综合作用的结果。当然,黑人政治力量的崛起只是初步性的,其实质是黑人中产阶级政治地位的提高。     

黑人掌控美国?

美国黑人在艺术、体育等领域的地位举足轻重。今天人们如此自然地接受第一位黑人美国总统,与各界明星在人们心目中树立的崇高地位和美好形象密不可分     

论B.T.华盛顿的妥协主义思想

布克·Ｔ．华盛顿是１９世纪末２０世纪初无可争议的美国黑人领袖。在内战后黑人的自由和权利都极为有限、极为脆弱,黑人生活环境举步维艰,白人种族主义势力甚嚣尘上的特定历史环境下,华盛顿提出了以调和主义、渐进主义为主要内容的妥协主义思想。这一思想代表了当时美国黑人领导阶层,尤其是南方黑人领导阶层的主导思想。华盛顿就黑人问题提出妥协主义思想,与他个人的经历,与当时美国社会的主流思想和文化观念,与他对当时美国社会种族关系的认识、黑人情况的评估以及对黑人未来前景的计划,均有着密切的关系。在当时历史条件下,华盛顿的妥协主义思想似乎比较保守,但从长远看,它具有一定的进步意义     

近50年来我国的美国黑人史研究

中国学近50年来对美国黑人史的研究可分为三个时期。20世纪50—70年代,美国黑人史研究在中国成为一个研究热点,取得一批重要成果,但不可避免带有政治化的倾向。80年代,黑人史研究略显沉寂,处于承上启下阶段。90年代以来,取得很大的进展,研究的领域和深度都有所拓展和深入。但总的看来,我国的美国黑人史研究还远未成熟,尚处于起步和奠基阶段。     

美国黑人高等教育的发展历程

美国黑人高等教育的发展,最初表现为黑人院校的建立与发展。黑人院校主要是指美国历史上的黑人学院和大学（Historically Black Colleges and Universities）,是专门为黑人接受高等教育而开办的两年制初级学院或提供学士学位教育的场所。绝大多数黑人院校创立于1964年之前,且得到州政府的认可。由于种族主义的存在,黑人院校成为美国黑人接受高等教育的惟一场所,且在相当长一段时间里代表了黑人高等教育的发展状况。直到20世纪60年代种族隔离制度被废除,实行黑人与白人合校,黑人高等教育才突破了“黑人院校”的局限。     

冷战与黑人民权改革:国际史视野下的布朗案判决

第二次世界大战结束后,美国国际角色定位的转变、美苏冷战的展开、第三世界国家的兴起、国际社会对人权保护的日益重视以及美国黑人争取民权的国际转向,促使美国的种族问题日趋国际化。为了维护国家形象和"世界领袖"地位,并努力把第三世界国家争取到资本主义阵营一边,美国政府不得不重视保障黑人权利。在布朗案等系列黑人民权诉讼案中,司法部代表美国政府以"法庭之友"身份提交书面陈述,从美国外交和国家利益的角度要求废除种族隔离制度。在布朗案中,最高法院在多个方面受到国际因素的影响,从而最终作出了推翻"隔离但平等"原则的判决。美国充分利用这一判决结果和有利的国际舆论,改善国家形象,提升国家声誉。美国政府对布朗案判决的政治利用取得了一定效果,而国际舆论也进一步推动了美国的黑人民权改革。     

“尼亚加拉运动”的兴起及其对美国黑人民权斗争发展的影响

“尼亚加拉运动”是20世纪初美国黑人争取种族平等的代表性组织。在白人种族主义泛滥的社会背景下,黑人知识分子的民权理念在世纪之交出现了妥协主义与激进主义的分歧。杜波依斯和激进派黑人逐渐团结在一起,成立了“尼亚加拉运动”组织,为这一时期的黑人民权活动注入了活力。该组织不仅提出了黑人的民权诉求,并将妇女、青年拓展为黑人争取民权的中坚力量,还通过创立官方媒体,开拓了自己的宣传阵地。此外,该组织以游说、资助和提供法律援助等形式,帮助“波普案”等一系列民权活动取得了成功。“尼亚加拉运动”的兴起标志着美国黑人民权斗争由妥协到激进的转向。该组织的发展促使20世纪美国黑人民权事业朝着组织建构更为系统、斗争目标更加明确、参与人员更加广泛的方向发展,有效地促进了黑人社会影响力的提升,为现代黑人民权事业打下了坚实的基础。     

美国州际高速公路铺设与种族冲突——以40号州际高速公路为例

州际高速公路的铺设是美国交通史上破天荒的举措,其重要性和巨大影响毋庸置疑,但也产生了新的种族问题:大量非洲裔美国人社区在高速公路的修建过程中遭到了刻意破坏,加重了种族矛盾。其中,横穿田纳西州纳什维尔黑人社区的40号州际高速公路就是一个突出的案例。从40号州际公路的路线制定到黑人社区居民反对的失败,都深刻地反映了地方政府在规划路线时对黑人社区的刻意破坏与对黑人权益的漠视,折射了高速公路铺设过程中的种族不平等。公路铺设之后又便利了白人和就业机会的外迁,加剧了就业隔离和居住隔离,带来了严重的交通不公平和种族隔离问题。     

TIPPING AND RESIDENTIAL SEGREGATION: A UNIFIED SCHELLING MODEL*

ABSTRACT This paper presents a Schelling‐type checkerboard model of residential segregation formulated as a spatial game. It shows that although every agent prefers to live in a mixed‐race neighborhood, complete segregation is observed almost all of the time. A concept of tipping is rigorously defined, which is crucial for understanding the dynamics of segregation. Complete segregation emerges and persists in the checkerboard model precisely because tipping is less likely to occur to such residential patterns. Agent‐based simulations are used to illustrate how an integrated residential area is tipped into complete segregation and why this process is irreversible. This model incorporates insights from Schelling's two classical models of segregation (the checkerboard model and the neighborhood tipping model) and puts them on a rigorous footing. It helps us better understand the persistence of residential segregation in urban America.     

A Surface-Based Approach to Measuring Spatial Segregation

Quantitative indices of residential segregation have been with us for half a century, but suffer significant limitations. While useful for comparison among regions, summary indices fail to reveal spatial aspects of segregation. Such measures generally consider only the population mix within zones, not between them. Zone boundaries are treated as impenetrable barriers to interaction between population subgroups, so that measurement of segregation is constrained by the zoning system, which bears no necessary relation to interaction among population subgroups. A segregation measurement approach less constrained by the chosen zoning system, which enables visualization of segregation levels at the local scale and accounts for the spatial dimension of segregation, is required. We propose a kernel density estimation approach to model spatial aspects of segregation. This provides an explicitly geographical framework for modeling and visualizing local spatial segregation. The density estimation approach lends itself to development of an index of spatial segregation with the advantage of functional compatibility with the most widely used index of segregation (the dissimilarity index D ). We provide a short review of the literature on measuring segregation, briefly describe the kernel density estimation method, and illustrate how the method can be used for measuring segregation. Examples using a simulated landscape and two empirical cases in Washington, DC and Philadelphia, PA are presented.     

广州市外来人口居住隔离及影响因素研究

利用广州市人口普查街道(部分居委会)数据总结1990-2000年外来人口居住隔离的时空特征:隔离程度呈增加趋势,核心和外围区隔离程度及变化差异大,散点状为主的空间模式,并呈现异质性和非稳定性的社会特征。通过典型社区问卷访谈,对比外来人口与户籍低收入人口,建构影响因素的逻辑回归(Logistic regression)模型,显示户籍的属地差别是产生隔离的根本原因,与户籍属地管理相关的劳动力市场分割和住房政策共同构成了排斥的制度环境,限制了外来人口的住房选择,把其推向低端私人租房市场。在有限的居住选择下,交通和经济等个体择居要素影响了隔离空间的分布和社会特征,以城中村为代表低端私人租房来源的布局特征决定并固化了隔离空间的分布模式。     

‘Faced With Courage’: Interpreting and Presenting Sites of African American Heritage to the Public

Abstract

Archaeological sites involving African American history and life often remain un-interpreted or are poorly interpreted because it can be difficult for Americans to confront a deeply painful history of enslavement, racism, segregation, exploitation of labour, disenfranchisement, and displacement. In this article, I discuss specific case studies of archaeological sites representative of great injustices in American history and efforts to present these events, and the people who lived through them, through public interpretation.     

HOUSE PRICE IMPACTS OF RACIAL,INCOME, EDUCATION,AND AGE NEIGHBORHOOD SEGREGATION

We study housing prices and neighborhood segregation. We advance the literature by (1) studying not just racial segregation like previous studies, but also segregation by age, income, and education level, (2) using a finer unit of geography to construct segregation measures, (3) incorporating spatial statistics, and (4) separating segregation effects from underlying population level effects. We find race segregation is positively related to house prices, with an elasticity of 0.19. In contrast, income and educational segregation reduce housing values, with elasticities of ?0.23 and ?0.21. By comparison, house age has an elasticity of ?0.15. Age segregation is not generally capitalized.     

Spatial Decomposition of Segregation Indices: A Framework Toward Measuring Segregation at Multiple Levels

Segregation measures based upon data gathered at different geographical levels cannot provide consistent results because of the scale effect under the Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (MAUP) umbrella. This paper proposes a framework, which decomposes segregation attributable to different geographical levels, to conceptually link segregation values obtained from multiple geographical levels together such that differences in segregation values among levels are accounted for. Using two different indices, the dissimilarity index D and the diversity index H, this paper illustrates the decomposition methods specific to these indices. When these indices are decomposed, local measures of segregation pertaining to multiple geographical levels are computed. These local segregation measures indicate the levels of segregation contributed by the local units and the regional units to the entire study area.     

Rumour and Myth in the labour camps of Qatar (Respond to this article at http://www.therai.org.uk/at/debate)

The petroleum‐rich states of the Arabian Peninsula comprise one of the principal transnational destinations for the global movement of labour. In the Gulf States, much of that labour force comes from South Asia. Legions of unskilled male labourers are typically housed in labor camps, a nomenclature that masks a wide variety of both formal and informal accommodation that, in spatial terms, is a fundamental mechanism for the social segregation of this foreign labor force from the citizenry. Building upon recent fieldwork in Doha, Qatar, this paper examines the myths and narratives that proliferate amongst the South Asian men in these labor camps – men who, often despite years of experience in the Gulf States, typically have little or no interaction with the native citizenry. This paper suggests that these myths and stories can be understood as instruments of governance in that they portray the collectively‐established boundaries of appropriate behavior in a culture foreign to these unskilled laborers. A close analysis of the content of these myths and rumors, however, also helps us grapple with the connections and contradictions between power, race, class, ethnicity, nationality, religion, gender and sexuality in the extraordinarily heterogeneous context of the contemporary Gulf State. As such, the analysis not only sheds light on the experiences of these foreign men and women, but also their collective understanding of that experience and of the society that hosts them.     

民族视角下社会空间分异研究的时空间行为转向

全球化与快速城市化过程中，城市内部以不同种族、民族为代表的多元社会群体，因其社会文化背景、生活习惯等不同而存在诸多差异，群体间的空间分异与融合正成为城市发展中的重要科学问题。本研究梳理了基于居住空间的国内外种族/民族社会空间研究，指出，在城市研究移动性转向的背景下，社会空间分异的研究正在突破传统的静态居住空间研究的局限而出现移动性转向，且在群体间行为差异、活动空间的种族/民族分异测度、少数族裔可达性劣势和混合地理学方法等方面展开了研究。在此基础上，本研究进一步提出了民族视角的社会空间分异时空间行为研究框架，以期为理解中国城市社会空间分异、解读民族的日常生活与社会空间融合提供新的视角。     

What do divided cities have in common? An international comparison of income segregation

This paper provides a comparative assessment of income segregation in cities of 12 countries. We use spatial entropy indexes based on small‐scale gridded income data and consistent definition of city boundaries to ensure international comparability of our segregation measures. Results show considerable variation in the levels of income segregation across cities, even within countries, reflecting the diversity within urban systems. Larger, more affluent, productive, and more unequal cities tend to be more segregated. Urban form, demographic, and economic factors explain additional variation in segregation levels through the influence of high‐income households, who tend to be the most segregated. The positive association between productivity and segregation is mitigated in polycentric cities.     

Ethnic segregation in England's schools

We document ethnic segregation in secondary schools in England in 2001 in order to contribute to the debate on the degree of ethnic group social integration. We use indices of dissimilarity and isolation to compare the patterns of segregation across nine ethnic groups. We find that levels of ethnic segregation in England's schools are high, with considerable variation both across LEAs and across different minority ethnic groups. By combining the two indices we are able to identify areas of particular concern as scoring highly on both. For pupils of South Asian origin, these include the locations of the severe disorders in the summer of 2001. Finally, we show that ethnic segregation is only weakly related to income segregation.