A dental study comparing age estimations of the human remains from the Swedish warship Vasa

The great Swedish warship Vasa capsized and sank in Stockholm harbour on her maiden voyage in 1628. The ship was raised from the seabed in 1961 and skeletal remains were recovered from at least 25 individuals, with teeth and jaws from 17 of them. The skeletal material was odontologically examined, including dental radiographs. Teeth lost both ante‐mortem and post‐mortem were recorded and variations in tooth anatomy noted. Acquired changes were recorded including enamel hypoplasia, attrition, dental caries and periodontal recession. Age estimations based on a separate odontological study, osteological changes and tooth attrition had been made in 1989. Ages were estimated additionally by three non‐destructive dental methods based on (a) the length of the apical translucent zone, (b) selected measurements both on intact teeth and from ratios on dental radiographs and (c) ratios of the length and width measurements on dental radiographs from selected teeth. Several sources of post‐mortem changes had been observed, among them vivianite in 33 teeth from four individuals. The results of the dental examination showed that few teeth had been lost ante‐mortem, there was a low caries rate and little loss of periodontal attachments. With few exceptions, there is fairly good agreement between the different methods of estimating age. Age estimates based on dental attrition were, however, significantly different from the other dental methods and age estimates calculated from apical translucency ought to be regarded with scepticism due to post‐mortem changes. The chronological ages of the victims will never be known, but age estimates based on all the age‐markers available will probably reach a fairly close approximation. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Dental root dentine translucency used in age determination of medieval Norwegians from Trondheim

A pilot study on eight skulls from the churchyard of St Olav's church in Trondheim, excavated in 1988–1989, was carried out to compare age determined by root dentine translucency with the age assessed by a physical anthropologist. The difference in mean age between the two methods was not significant (p = 0.06). Age determinations based on root dentine translucency were then performed on removable teeth from the adults among the 248 skeletons found in the same churchyard, excavated in 1984–1985. A comparison between the ages determined using root dentine translucency and the ages previously determined by the direct inspection method was performed. A significant systematic difference was seen between the two methods (p = 0.000). The root dentine translucency method gave an age range for the cohort excavated in 1984–1985 between 30 and 72 years, whereas the direct inspection method gave a range between 15 and 63 years. Because evaluation of many criteria are required to achieve reasonably accurate estimates of age in connection with the direct inspection method, expertise in skeletal biology is necessary. The method of measuring root dentine translucency as a tool in archaeological and anthropological work and fieldwork and in forensic science seems to have advantages because the method can be used without previous extensive training.     

Identification of historical human skeletal remains: a case study using skeletal and dental age,history and DNA

Excavation of an early historical (circa 1900) church cemetery in Cochrane, Alberta, Canada, revealed the graves of six individuals. All but one had been previously excavated and the individuals were re‐interred elsewhere. The remaining grave contained a coffin burial of an infant including most of the skeleton, crowns of forming deciduous teeth, scalp and hair. The remains were excavated and historical research was carried out to determine possible families who had used the cemetery. Skeletal and dental age estimates pointed to a particular individual described in historical records. This identification was confirmed through more precise ageing by dental microstructure, sex determination using DNA, and finally, maternal relatedness by comparison of mtDNA with a living female relative. In addition to describing the analytical methods used, this paper demonstrates the importance of accurately identifying historical burials, particularly when living relatives remain in the community. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Measuring Root Dentine Translucency in Human Teeth of Varying Antiquity

Many workers have calibrated human root dentine transparency (RDT) as a linear regression on age. It is now regarded as a well-established means of estimating age at death in modern human material. Similar applications in archaeological material have not yet been developed. The aim of this study was to establish a standard protocol for measuring RDT which was derived from previous methods and which could be applied to teeth of unknown and varying antiquity. An initial study on two archaeological populations determined the choice of tooth to study and a second study, using expendable teeth (of unknown age and origin), evaluated various techniques of specimen preparation and examination. Findings from the pilot study indicated that the lower canine was the tooth of choice. From the second study it was observed that archaeological teeth could only be sectioned if they had first been infiltrated and embedded in methyl methacrylate. The optimal section thickness was found to be 150 μm and no benefit was gained by staining. Inter-observer reliability tests showed significant differences in repeated measures of RDT in intact teeth, which were not borne out when sectioned teeth were used. Intra-observer reliability was maintained for measurements in both intact and sectioned teeth. These findings have been used to establish a standard protocol for application to human teeth of any depositional phase to estimate the dental age at death of that individual.     

Evaluation of uniradicular teeth for age-at-death estimations in a sample from a Pampean hunter-gatherer cemetery (Argentina)

Age-at-death estimation is one of the most important aspects of bioarchaeological and forensic investigations. A set of analysis carried out with the osteological sample recovered from Chenque I site (Lihué Calel National Park, La Pampa province, Argentina) aims to test the applicability of multiple methods to obtain reliable information about its demographic composition and structure. In the present paper the results of the evaluation of the structure of uniradicular teeth are presented and discussed. It has been previously stated that chronological age is highly correlated with pulp dimensions in these teeth, because dentine deposition continue during all life. Strong correlation has been also identified with periodontal retraction and apical translucency. The analysis of the structure of these teeth offers useful information in order to obtain age-at-death estimations of the individuals they belonged to. Dental age-at-death estimations of the control sample were obtained evaluating some skeletal markers (pubic symphysis and auricular surface of coxae), and then compared with the dental analysis. The formulae whose results showed strong correlations with the skeletal estimations were applied to another sample, composed of teeth that were not associated with any skeletal marker of age. The evaluation of premolars and lower central incisors offers estimations that are consistent with those obtained from the evaluation of the pelvic bones, so that the application of these formulae is an alternative method to obtain estimations in archaeological samples from similar contexts.     

Radiographic analysis of dental development used in age determination of infant and juvenile skulls from a medieval archaeological site in Norway

Age determination based on radiographic examination of teeth and tooth development stages was performed on the infant and juvenile skeletons from St Olav's churchyard in Trondheim. All the 248 skulls with jaws and teeth were radiographed. Based on the apical closure of the second molar, 198 skulls were determined to be older than 15 years. In 38 of the remaining skulls the age could be determined radiographically based on tooth development stages. The age was below 8 years in 25 individuals (66 per cent). The correlation between the radiographic and a direct inspection age determination method was 0.969. The greatest discrepancies between the two methods were found in the age group 12–15 years.     

Visual and radiographic assessment of dental caries by osteologists: a validity and reliability study

In the skeletal remains of earlier populations, the presence and severity of dental caries preserves evidence about general health and diet. The quality of the data collected on dental caries is highly dependent on the diagnostic skills of the examining osteologist. A major barrier to more detailed data is reliance on visual inspection only. The present study compared quantification of carious lesions by osteologists, using both visual and radiographic inspection. Four osteologists with varying experience of caries diagnosis registered the presence and extent of dental caries on the crown and root surfaces of 61 teeth sourced from three different samples: archaeological, anthropological and modern. The teeth were subsequently sectioned to provide a control or standard reference. The interobserver differences were calculated as sensitivity (observer correctness in identifying teeth with caries disease). The two observers with more experience of dental paleopathology showed higher agreement with the standard reference than the other two observers, i.e. they correctly diagnosed more carious lesions. The most pronounced interobserver difference was for radiographic inspection of root surfaces. The recordings by the two experienced observers conformed much more closely with the standard reference than those of the less experienced observers. The results confirm that experience has a major influence on practical observations in dental paleopathology. The quality of collected data on dental caries could be enhanced by improving osteologists' knowledge of the disease process and the application of uniform, unambiguous criteria for registration of carious lesions. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Distribution of dental caries in an early 17th century swedish population with special reference to diet

The distribution of dental caries was determined in complete and partial human dentitions from a 17th century (1621–1640) city graveyard excavated in Gothenburg, Sweden. Sixty‐three adults and two children, divided into five different age groups, were studied. Altogether 949 teeth (943 permanent and six deciduous) were examined macroscopically using a dental probe and X‐rays. A high number of teeth had been lost post‐mortem. An increase in ante‐mortem tooth loss was found with increasing age. Sixty per cent of all individuals and 12% of all teeth showed signs of caries. The number of carious teeth per subject increased with increasing age. The highest prevalence of individuals with caries was found for the age group 26–35 (69%). Caries were most prevalent in the first, second and third lower molars (60%), while the incisors and canines in the upper and lower jaws were the least affected teeth (1%). The occlusal surface was the area most susceptible to caries (45%), followed by the buccal cemento–enamel junction (16%) and the approximal contact point (11%). This study shows that, although consuming a diet believed to have been lower in sugar content compared to modern populations, caries did affect a rather high number of individuals living in Sweden during the early 17th century. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Incremental banding in dental cementum: Methods of preparation for teeth from archaeological sites and for modern comparative specimens

Analysis of incremental banding in dental cementum is a well-established means of determining the age and season of death of wild mammals. The dental cementum of domesticated mammals likewise can indicate age and season of death. Methods of preparation applicable to archaeological teeth differ from those used for modern specimens, however, and this paper describes two methods that have given excellent imaging on teeth of Bos taurus; one for modern teeth and the other for teeth from archaeological sites.     

Mortality curves for horses from the Middle Palaeolithic site of Bau de l'Aubesier (Vaucluse, France): methodological, palaeo-ethnological, and palaeo-ecological approaches

A new methodology for estimating the age of death of horse, based on the degree of hypsondonty, has been established using the dental material of Equus mosbachensis, Equus cf. taubachensis, and Equus sp., which were hunted from the Mousterian levels of the Bau de l'Aubesier at Monieux (Vaucluse, France). Our model is based on a regression analysis of curvilinear type, and allows the precise determination of age classes intervals and the distribution of estimated ages, by systematically taking into account the standard deviation. These estimates were tested from all the paired teeth of horses belonging to the same individuals, from the sites of Bau de l'Aubesier and of Jaurens at Nespouls (Corrèze, France).The age structures of the horses of Bau de l'Aubesier were compared in the different levels of the sequence with their frequencies, survival rates, and mortality rates corresponding to as many curves as often used in population ecology and demographics. The different age classes of a present-day natural African population (Equus burchelli boehmi), the individuals having died accidentally in the National Park of Akagera (Rwanda) following a bush fire, provide an interesting comparative catastrophic model with regard to the population dynamics, and permit us to evaluate the impact of Neandertals on the Equidae fossils of Bau de l'Aubesier. Our assemblage clearly indicates in the lower layers, a systematic selection of adult horses, as opposed to the upper sequence where juveniles and adults dominate. Ecological factors, such as seasonal migratory phenomena and herd gathering, which characterise many large size species are also tackled and could explain the high proportion of adults in French Middle Palaeolithic sites where horses were preferentially hunted.     

Reconstruction of Socioeconomic Status in the Medieval (14th–15th Century) Population of Grevenmacher (Luxembourg) Based on Growth,Development and Diet

Numerous historical sources describe many aspects of the estate‐based society in medieval times; the detection of socioeconomic status within populations through skeletal remains is a topic of growing interest in anthropological studies. In medieval times, it was common for members of high social rank to be buried within or next to a church. This was certainly the case in Grevenmacher (Luxembourg), where remains of a church building and an adjacent cemetery from the 13th until the beginning of the 15th century were subjected to archaeological and anthropological analysis. By integrating archaeological and anthropological elements, as well as stable isotope analysis, we documented osteological manifestations as indicators of diet differentials in two subsamples (first group consists out of 56 individuals, second one out of 184 individuals) from the medieval cemetery of Grevenmacher. We could distinguish two subsamples that we assumed as different in their socioeconomic status with regards to the burials' position in the cemetery and burial characteristics. Differences in osteological traits such as bone length, stature and body mass indicated differences in diet between sample groups. To substantiate these outcomes, stable isotopic analysis (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N) were made; the results displayed a clear separation between the sample groups on the basis of their diet. Therefore, we were able to confirm certain individuals in the medieval population of Grevenmacher in relationship to their socioeconomic status. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The frequency and distribution of dental caries and tooth wear in a Byzantine population of Sa'ad,Jordan

The aim of this study was to determine the frequency, distribution and extent of dental caries and tooth wear in a Byzantine population in Sa'ad, to compare these with modern Jordanians, and to draw inferences about their lifestyle. Dental caries and tooth wear were examined in 1159 permanent teeth using direct vision and dental explorer. The location and extent of the lesions were recorded and evaluated according to defined criteria. The overall caries prevalence was 16.8% (n = 1159). Most of the carious lesions (13. 9%, n = 1159) were present in the tooth crown, on occlusal or proximal surfaces; 2.9% of teeth displayed root caries alone. The upper and lower central incisors exhibited the lowest coronal caries frequency, while molars showed the highest frequency. Attrition with moderate dentine exposure was evident in most teeth. Some teeth (9.8%) demonstrated oblique abrasion and 9 (0.78%) teeth exhibited cupped occlusal surfaces. The prevalence of caries was within the range reported for other Byzantine populations and lower than that of modern Jordanians. The attrition seen in most teeth and the cupped occlusal surfaces might be due to eating abrasive food, drinking wine or acidic beverages. Oblique abrasion on the facial and palatal surfaces reflects their business or craft, such as basket making and leather processing. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Pathogenesis of apical periodontal cysts: guidelines for diagnosis in palaeopathology

Apical periodontal cysts are benign lesions developing in relation to the apices of non‐vital teeth due to inflammatory response from the infective pulp. These are epithelium‐lined bony cavities containing fluid. Despite being widely reported in medical/dental literature, this common condition is poorly diagnosed and documented in the archaeological literature. We aim to clarify the correct terminology, demonstrate bony manifestations at different stages of pathogenesis of chronic periapical dental lesions into granuloma and apical periodontal cysts, and to describe diagnostic criteria which would provide practical guidelines for the diagnosis of these conditions. Three identified skulls from the International Exchange Collection, housed in the Anthropological Museum at the University of Coimbra, are used to identify the progression of this condition from a small periapical granuloma to a large apical periodontal cyst with expansion of alveolar and facial bones. The pathogenesis of this condition is described, together with its surgical management in the early 20^th century in Portugal, which is the period in which these individuals lived. Confusion resulting from the different terminologies can be avoided if the term periapical granuloma is used to define apical bony lesions smaller than 3 mm at their maximum intra‐bony diameter, and the term apical periodontal cysts for the larger lesions. We recommend that these terminologies and parameters be used as a standard in future studies. This will make inter‐observer and inter‐population comparisons more accurate. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

CHILDHOOD DIET: A CLOSER EXAMINATION OF THE EVIDENCE FROM DENTAL TISSUES USING STABLE ISOTOPE ANALYSIS OF INCREMENTAL HUMAN DENTINE*

Incremental dentine analysis utilizes tissue that does not remodel and that permits comparison, at the same age, of those who survived infancy with those who did not at high temporal resolution. Here, we present a pilot study of teeth from a 19th‐century cemetery in London, comparing the merits of two methods of obtaining dentine increments for subsequent isotope determination. Covariation in δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values suggests that even small variations have a physiological basis. We show that high‐resolution intra‐dentine isotope profiles can pinpoint short‐duration events such as dietary change or nutritional deprivation in the juvenile years of life.     

Dental Pathology,Trauma and Attrition in a Zambian Iron Age Sample: A Macroscopic and Radiographic Investigation

Using morphological and radiographic methods, we analysed the dentitions of 24 individuals from Ingombe Ilede and Isamu Pati Zambian Iron Age archaeological sites. In this study, we determined the frequency and distribution of attrition, pathological conditions and dental trauma. This research also presents the first view of dental health for an Iron Age population in southern Africa. In total, 482 teeth were available for this study with 287 teeth missing, where 50 of these were lost antemortem and one individual had an erupted supernumerary first mandibular incisor. With the use of radiography and morphology, 21.5% (104/482) of the analysed teeth had at least one pathological condition or evidence of dental trauma. Some interesting dental aspects found and discussed in this paper are linear enamel hypoplastic lesions, radicular resorption, periapical lesions, fractures, dental modification and carious lesions. Many of these features were diagnosed with radiography, and this was especially important for those found below the cemento‐enamel junction (p = 0.0202) that are less obvious with macroscopic investigation alone. Additionally, the quantity and direction of dental attrition was studied. There were observed sex differences with the direction of wear, likely representing a sex‐specific cultural practice of using teeth as tools. Overall, the results show that this sample suffered relatively little from dental problems, and many of those observed features were associated with the traumatic procedure of dental modification, whereas others were age and diet‐related. Additionally, with the use of radiography, rare dental fractures and other features were diagnosed; these results demonstrate the requirement for its application in dental studies on archaeological assemblages. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Application of non-adult Bayesian dental age assessment methods to skeletal remains: the Spitalfields collection

The aim of this study was to test with non-adult skeletons the quality of a recently published dental age assessment method based on Bayes' theorem. The test sample consisted of dental X-rays from 16 individuals (range 2.6–15.1 years) recovered from the crypt of Christ Church, Spitalfields, London, for which age-at-death and sex were known. The training sample consisted of dental X-rays from 1346 girls and 1040 boys (range 1.9–16.0 years). Bayesian dental age assessment method was alternatively used with dependent and independent assumptions; the dependent Bayesian method (DBM) and independent Bayesian method (IBM), respectively. Moreover, both DBM and IBM were used alternatively with sex-specific standards and with non-sex-specific standard. Due to the training sample age distribution, both methods are efficient between 5.0 and 14.0 years. Whatever the method or the sex standard used, when dental age was different from chronological age, the discrepancy did not exceed one age group of one year. DBM produced tighter dental age 100% confidence intervals than IBM for the majority of assessments. The observed stability between results produced according to the type of sex standard used (i.e. sex-specific or non-sex-specific), and the number of teeth studied (range 4–7), is worthy of note for both archaeological and forensic contexts.     

Masticatory and non‐masticatory dental modifications in the epipalaeolithic necropolis of Taforalt (Morocco)

In this study, we used standardized methods to investigate masticatory and non‐masticatory dental alterations (chipping, notches, interproximal grooves) in teeth from the epipalaeolithic necropolis of Taforalt (Morocco, about 12,000–11,000 BP). The particular distribution of some of the alterations could be related to avulsion of the upper central incisors, a systematic ritual characterizing all adult individuals of the necropolis. Because of this practice, the functions of the anterior teeth (cutting and tearing portions of food while eating, holding objects, etc.) likely shifted to the posterior teeth. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Daily rates of dentine formation in macaque tooth roots

When tetracycline antibiotics are administered either orally or by injection they bind at the forming mineral front of the dentine and become incorporated into teeth as a permanent label. In this study, oxytetracycline was used as a label in order to investigate the growth of root dentine in macaques. There are no good data available in the literature for daily rates of root dentine formation over a prolonged period of time in either humans or macaques. Records of ten doses of oxytetracycline administered orally at irregular intervals (but at the same time of day) over a period of 10 months to a young rhesus macaque monkey (Macaca mulatta) were used to calculate the rate of dentine formation in tooth roots. Rates of dentine formation in the first portion of third permanent molar root formation, and in the apical portion of permanent canine and premolar root formation, were consistently between 3 μm and 4 μm per day. There was no evidence in this study of a gradual decrease in daily dentine formation rate from the crown to the root, or along the length of a dentine tubule through the bulk of the dentine, as has been implied previously. With the exception of faster rates recorded in cusps or slower rates recorded at the very beginning or very end of primary dentine secretion in other studies, the results of the present study suggest a consistent rate of dentine formation in permanent macaque teeth. What data there are for human dentine formation rates suggests that it is likely this finding can be extended to human dentine as well.     

The Ba/Sr ratio,carious lesions,and dental calculus among the population buried in the church La Concepción (Tenerife,Canary Islands)

Certain trace elements may accumulate in bone in relation to dietary habits, so some of them are of interest in paleodietary analysis. This is the case with strontium (Sr) and barium (Ba), whose potential value as paleodietary indicators is enhanced by their relatively inert metabolic behaviour. The presence of carious lesions may indicate consumption of sugar and vegetables, whereas the etiology of dental calculus deposition is multifactorial, although some authors consider this as an indicator of protein consumption. Based on these facts we analysed (1) Ba, Sr, and calcium (Ca) content of inner cortical bone obtained from the ramus mandibularis, by atomic absorption spectrophotometry, (2) presence of teeth with carious lesions, and (3) presence of teeth with calculus deposition in 62 mandibles. All samples were obtained from the church La Concepción, an 18th century burial place in Tenerife. Gender was assessed by analysing genetic expression of amelogenin in some cases (14), and by inspection of pelvic bones when available (41 cases). We found (1) Carious lesions in 32 cases, and dental calculus, in 39; no association was observed between sex and presence of dental caries or calculus deposition, nor between the sex and the proportion of carious teeth nor the proportion of teeth with calculus deposition; (2) people buried near the altar (priests and individuals of the highest social class) showed a significantly higher proportion of teeth with dental calculus deposition (χ² = 5.36, p = 0.021); (3) bone Sr and bone Ba were significantly higher than the values observed in a control group of 10 modern omnivorous individuals; the lowest Sr values were observed among people buried near the altar; and (4) the Ba/Sr ratio was directly related with the proportion of teeth with carious lesions. These data suggest that there were differences in dietary pattern among the individuals belonging to different social classes; overall, consumption of vegetables was widespread, as shown by the high proportion of carious lesions, in relation with raised Ba/Sr ratio, whereas consumption of marine products was scarce.