DELINEATING METROPOLITAN AREAS USING LAND PRICES*

ABSTRACT This paper proposes an approach to delineating metropolitan areas that is more general than the standard approaches in three respects: First, it uses the fraction of land prices attributable to economies of urban agglomeration instead of using commuting intensities as an indicator of economic integration between metropolitan centers and their hinterlands. Second, it identifies metropolitan centers endogenously instead of determining them exogenously. And third, it takes metropolitan subcenters explicitly into account. An empirical illustration is used to show that the approach tends to delineate fewer but larger metropolitan areas in densely populated regions, and smaller metropolitan areas in sparsely populated regions.     

Local determinants of African civil wars, 1970–2001

In large-N investigations, civil conflicts – like any significant political event – tend to be studied and understood at the country level. Popular explanations of why and where civil wars occur, however, refer to such factors as ethnic discrimination, wealth inequalities, access to contrabands, and peripheral havens. The intensity of such factors varies geographically within states. Therefore, any statistical study of civil war that uses country-level approximations of local phenomena is potentially flawed. In this paper, we disaggregate the country and let 100 × 100 km grid cells be the units of observation. Having developed geo-referenced conflict data from Uppsala/PRIO's conflict database, we use GIS to identify regions of peace and conflict and as a tool to generate sub-national measures of key explanatory variables. The results from an empirical analysis of African civil wars, 1970–2001, demonstrate spatial clustering of conflict that co-varies with the spatial distribution of several exogenous factors. Territorial conflict is more likely in sparsely populated regions near the state border, at a distance from the capital, and without significant rough terrain. Conflict over state governance is more likely in regions that are densely populated, near diamond fields, and near the capital city. These promising findings show the value of the innovative research design and offer nuanced explanations of the correlates of civil war.     

江苏沿江地区制造业同构状况及合意性评判

产业空间分工是产业分工在地域上的投影,强调不同地域的产业分工发展及相互关系。按照一般意义,产业地域专业化分工有利于集约利用资源、增强区域竞争力。而产业同构作为产业空间分工的现实问题,存在两面性,即合意与非合意的趋同。以江苏沿江21个市区、县(市)为样本,采用地区相对分工指数、地区间分工指数和地方专业化指数等方法,探析沿江地区产业空间分工趋势和同构程度。并基于合意与非合意产业同构的特征,从市场需求、发挥地区比较优势和环境效益等方面进一步分析江苏沿江地区产业同构的合意程度。     

Interaction among High-tech Talent and its Impact on Innovation Performance: A Comparison of Taiwanese Science Parks at Different Stages of Development

Numerous studies have studied how knowledge spillovers and various other factors influence industrial clusters in terms of geographical proximity. Related studies have generally confirmed significant positive correlations between firm innovative activities and factors such as spatial proximity and degree of industrial clustering. This study elucidates on an individual level, based on the relationship between proximity dimension and innovative activity, the interactive relationships between the mobility and interaction of high-tech talent and innovation performance. Survey results indicate that the spatial proximity of firms clustering within the Hsinchu and Tainan Science-based Industrial Park increases the interaction among high-tech personnel and the expansion of their professional networks, thus promoting innovation. Gradually organizational and social proximity evolve from physical proximity within high-tech districts via the evolution of industrial networks and interactions among high-tech talent. Additionally survey results demonstrate the value of mobility and informal relationships involving high-tech talent, as well as the effect of these relationships on innovation performance during the various stages of science park development. However, how to avoid lock-in in the future development of high-tech districts remains a critical issue. The results of this investigation provide a useful reference for planning and managing industrial districts.     

A connectivity model as a potential tool for smart specialization strategies

The article contributes to the smart specialization literature by presenting a new approach, connectivity analysis, where Triple Helix (TH) relations (involving universities, companies and government) are at the centre of the entrepreneurial discovery process. Relations between helices may be seen, from the point of departure of proximity, as preconditions of connectivity, or interaction, measured through expectations and experiences. This offers potential solution to two limitations of proximity approach: its static nature and narrow focus on dyadic relationships. The connectivity analysis reveals the extent of mutual expectations, as well as tensions, or gaps. Based on this analysis, the article presents a policy model that is used to map structures of networks and gaps between TH actors. It may also identify strengths, weaknesses and problems. This analysis is used as input to structured dialogues between actors in leading positions in the TH and in smart specialization policy-making and implementation. This approach may lead to policy interventions supporting entrepreneurial discoveries. The model has been developed in partnership with researchers and the Regional Council of Ostrobothnia. The article also presents this case study and demonstrates the use of the connectivity model in practice.     

A geographic assessment of 'total' health care supply in Ontario: complementary and alternative medicine and conventional medicine

Shortages of family physicians, specialists and other personnel working within the realm of conventional medicine (CM) concern citizens in many regions and municipalities in Canada. Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) approaches (such as chiropractic, holistic, homeopathic, naturopathic, massage and acupuncture) are increasingly used in conjunction with, or in some cases as replacements for, conventional medicine. Thus, to get an idea of 'total' health care supply in a jurisdiction and to draw comparisons between locations, it is useful to understand the spatial tendencies of both CM and CAM offices. With the use of a sample that contains the location, employment and sales of 4,955 CAM and 8,709 CM offices, this study details the spatial patterns of health care supply in the Canadian province of Ontario. The analysis comprises three main parts. First, the geographic tendencies of CAM and CM office activity are revealed in per capita terms and while regional differences are detectable, the main contrast is that CAM displays a much more even distribution across the urban-rural continuum in comparison to CM. Second, through the use of location quotients and a local spatial autocorrelation analysis, it is shown that certain municipalities (especially in Ontario's southwest and south-central regions) specialize in CAM and the most outstanding spatial feature is an '81 municipality CAM cluster' that represents arguably the pinnacle of CAM activity in the province. CM specialization is rarer and is biased towards the more populated municipalities. Third, a Spearman's correlation analysis suggests that CAM and CM health care supply are associated with community well-being indictors and urban density measures.     

Persistence in regional learning paradigms and trajectories: consequences for innovation policy design

Inspired by the first evaluation processes on how nations and regions have interpreted and specified the smart specialization strategy, this paper applies the lens of evolutionary economic theory to interpret the causes of the lock-in mechanisms in learning processes that seem to prevail in most regions. The paper elaborates the notion of regional learning paradigms and trajectories to interpret evolution in the way innovation occurs in regions. By identifying the sources of path-dependence in regional learning paradigms and trajectories, the paper explains the difficulties faced by regions in ‘jumping’ on a new paradigm/trajectory and initiating an explorative entrepreneurial discovery process. Once the reasons for lock-in are highlighted, the paper advances some suggestions on possible adjustments to the design of a smart specialization strategy.     

SPATIAL PATTERNS OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE SOVIET UNION

Analysis of spatial patterns of attained educational levels is helpful in understanding the cultural geography of an area, perhaps especially in the Soviet Union, with its many ethnic groups and stated aim of providing equality of education regardless of ethnicity or sex. The proportion of the population that had completed a higher education was mapped at oblast level from 1970 census data. High rates are found in certain urban areas, Estonia and Latvia, Georgia, and certain sparsely populated areas of the Far North, Siberia, and the Far East. There are regional patterns of disparity between male and female rates of completed higher education and between rural and urban rates, despite Soviet attempts to reduce these inequalities. The distribution of Soviet higher educational institutions conforms generally to the distribution of population, although access to higher education opportunities appears to be geographically limited in some regions. (Maps by Joann L. Krupa, George Mason University.)     

多尺度视角下中国城市创新网络格局及邻近性机理分析

借助2016年国家知识产权局的专利合作数据,利用复杂网络和空间分析方法对国家、区际和省内三个尺度的城市创新网络结构进行刻画,并利用负二项回归法对创新合作的邻近性机理进行了剖析。研究表明：①全国城市创新网络的整体联系较弱,网络极化现象明显,空间结构呈现出以北京为核心的放射型网络形态。区际城市创新网络的跨区域网络联系强于区内网络联系,东中西形成以区域中心城市为核心的异质性空间结构。省内城市创新网络的本地结网不足,内部联系强度低,空间形态普遍呈现出以省会城市为中心的核心-边缘结构。②回归结果证实了社会邻近、技术邻近对城市创新结网具有显著的促进作用,地理邻近则呈现出不显著的正向影响。其中,技术邻近的促进作用显著高于社会邻近,而地理邻近则需要通过社会邻近的调节效应对创新结网产生影响。     

The Magnetic Field Model Applied to Swedish Settlements

To study the reason for changes in the population of urban settlements and sparsely populated districts we need an approach on a regional geographic level that will combine various theoretical elements and which, taken together, will provide an interdisciplinary platform. The identity of a place is created by specific local factors as well as by social and economic processes occurring both in the place itself and in the urban system. We can use indications showing how local and regional urban systems function in order to ascertain why one urban settlement grows while another stagnates, why a sparsely populated district in one region flourishes while other districts languish. Using the decision-making point of view adopted by households and businesses will help us to achieve our aim.
The starting point of the model employed—called the magnetic field model—is the fact that an attraction field of positive factors forms in and around places with a growing population. The aim of this paper is to show that a regional geographic analysis can be made from a number of indicators of significance for the development of populations in urban settlements and sparsely populated districts. Naturally these indicators can—and should—be queried, added to and assessed when other, similar investigations are carried out.     

ACCOUNTING FOR NEIGHBORING EFFECTS IN MEASURES OF SPATIAL CONCENTRATION*

ABSTRACT A common problem with spatial economic concentration measures based on areal data (e.g., Gini, Herfindhal, entropy, and Ellison‐Glaeser indices) is accounting for the position of regions in space. While they purport to measure spatial clustering, these statistics are confined to calculations within individual areal units. They are insensitive to the proximity of regions or to neighboring effects. Clearly, since spillovers do not recognize areal units, economic clusters may cross regional boundaries. Yet with current measures, any industrial agglomeration that traverses boundaries will be chopped into two or more pieces. Activity in adjacent spatial units is treated in exactly the same way as activity in far‐flung, nonadjacent areas. This paper shows how popular measures of spatial concentration relying on areal data can be modified to account for neighboring effects. With a U.S. application, we also demonstrate that the new instruments we propose are easy to implement and can be valuable in regional analysis.     

Smart specialization as a strategy to develop early-stage regional innovation systems

ABSTRACT

This paper discusses the role of smart specialization in catalyzing the development of early-stage regional innovation systems in less advanced regions, either by facilitating the emergence of some defining elements that were lacking or accelerating the development of others, such as: a regional knowledge base and a dynamic learning process, institutional structures, network integration mechanisms among key innovation actors, regional industrial specializations, and collective identities. The paper exemplifies this process with the case of Romania, a country where the research and innovation system is centralized at national level and regional innovation systems are in the early days. The transformations taking place in the Romanian regions within the process of implementing smart specialization, assisted by the European Commission's Joint Research Centre in the project “Targeted Support to Smart Specialization in Romania”, suggest a dynamic coagulation of institutional, financial, policy, and human factors that catalyzed the development of regional innovation systems in the country and introduced a novel approach to innovation policy.     

High-tech development and spatial planning: comparing the Netherlands and Taiwan from an institutional perspective

High-tech development has been broadly accepted as a prominent matter of regional development policies and plans at the global level. Strategies to enhance it have evident implications for spatial planning policies, plans and visions. Consequently, careful attention should be paid to the role that spatial planning policies play in the national and regional efforts to advance high-tech development in a particular place. This study addresses the relationship between the spatial planning system and high-tech development, searching to explain the spatial implications resulting from this relationship. It approaches the topic by comparing high-tech development experiences in the Netherlands and Taiwan from an institutional perspective. Although both countries have used a range of spatial strategies for economic growth through high-tech development, the results show that their different institutional settings, power relations between different levels of government and conceptions of science park have led to the implementation of two very distinct spatial strategies, shaping different spatial patterns of high-tech development clustering in these two regions. The findings demonstrate the potential of the institutional approach to study international planning issues, and contribute to theories of high-tech development and spatial planning.     

Bayesian Analysis of Knowledge Spillovers in European Regions*

Abstract. This paper estimates the effects of knowledge spillovers on patent growth rates across 335 European regions over the 1989–1999 period. We propose a dynamic model based on an innovation production function. A Bayesian approach is used to take into account area‐specific innovation and spatial spillovers. The estimation of the model proceeds via Markov Chain Monte Carlo simulation. The results show significant positive and negative spatial effects on innovative activity. The model allows for a rich spatial specification, which we illustrate by incorporating transport proximity measured by transportation time between regions to augment the typical spatial proximity measure of connectivity between regions. Doing this produces more pronounced spatial spillovers that exhibit a more polarized spatial pattern than a model relying on spatial proximity alone.     

Modelling tourism and hospitality employment clusters: a spatial econometric approach

ABSTRACT

Geographic clustering of industries for mutual economic benefit has long been recognised. The concept of ‘externalities’ introduced by Alfred Marshall early last century rely on agglomeration of specialised industry within a geographic area. However, only recently has cluster modelling been applied to the tourism and hospitality (T&H) industry. The aim of this paper, therefore, is twofold: first is to develop a cluster-based theoretical framework for delineating geographic boundaries of T&H clusters, and second is to identify the underlying factors that drive their form and shape.

Drawing on employment data as the basis for co-location of T&H firms, spatial econometrics techniques are applied to model the spatial clustering of T&H employment in Victoria, Australia. Results show that rural tourism regions have higher levels of employment in tourism operational services whereas employment in city-based regions is more concentrated in hospitality services. Our findings, when normalised as a percentage of total employment, show that rural and regional Victoria ranks most highly as employers in the T&H industry. Adopting a range of spatial metrics, we show that T&H clustering throughout Victoria is largely driven by six location-specific factors: (1) the availability of tourism attractions; (2) proximity to the coast; (3) the road density network; (4) accessibility to employment within the Melbourne CBD; (5) the scale of the regional economy; and, (6) the advantages and disadvantages associated with economic resources. We conclude that the cluster-led strategy pose a number of challenges for tourism planners to promote regional tourism. Nevertheless, results from this study indicate that T&H employment clustering creates a more cohesive spatial structure that could support economic development and better connectedness of tourism destinations. These clusters could act as service hubs to their wider catchment areas where visitors are encouraged to stay overnight and travel to specific sights during the day.     

Exploring Spatial Patterns Using an Expanded Spatial Autocorrelation Framework

Spatial autocorrelation (SA) is regarded as an important dimension of spatial pattern. SA measures usually consist of two components: measuring the similarity of attribute values and defining the spatial relationships among observations. The latter component is often represented by a spatial weights matrix that predefines spatial relationship between observations in most measures. Therefore, SA measures, in essence, are measures of attribute similarity, conditioned by spatial relationship. Another dimension of spatial pattern can be explored by controlling observations to be compared based upon the degree of attribute similarity. The resulting measures are spatial proximity measures of observations, meeting predefined attribute similarity criteria. Proposed measures reflect degrees of clustering or dispersion for observations meeting certain levels of attribute similarity. An existing spatial autocorrelation framework is expanded to a general framework to evaluate spatial patterns and can accommodate the proposed approach measuring proximity. Analogous to the concept of variogram, clustergram is proposed to show the levels of spatial clustering over a range of attribute similarity, or attribute lags. Specific measures based on the proposed approach are formulated and applied to a hypothetical landscape and an empirical example, showing that these new measures capture spatial pattern information not reflected by traditional spatial autocorrelation measures.     

Policy Coalitions in the U.S. Congress: A Spatial Duration Modeling Approach

This paper applies spatial duration models to the analysis of cosponsorship coalitions in the U.S. House of Representatives. This approach provides a unique and simultaneous statistical analysis of ideological space (specifically, coalition formation) and geographical space. Typically, duration models are associated with temporal longitudinal data, but recently have been adapted to the spatial domain (Pellegrini and Reader 1996). In this paper, spatial duration models are further adapted to examine ideological space including a consideration of unobserved sources of spatial variation (or omitted variable bias). We examine two features of cosponsorship coalitions, breadth and clustering. Breadth is defined as the ideological distance between the two most extreme members of the coalition which is an important “signal” to the rest of Congress regarding the scope and broad appeal of the proposed legislation. In contrast, clustering refers to the distance between individual members of a coalition and reveals the tendency, or not, of ideologically similar members of Congress to support various bills. To examine breadth and clustering, we employ spatial duration models of cosponsorship that permit a multivariate analysis incorporating both the characteristics of members of Congress and the geographical regions they represent. Results indicate that cosponsorship coalition patterns are primarily determined by the content of the legislation, not the actions of the coalition leadership. While the leadership characteristics of sponsors have a limited effect on cosponsorship breadth, the size of the coalition is the primary determinent. Leadership characteristics also have little effect on cosponsorship clustering. Rather, clustering is due to members' policy preferences, as measured by distance to the coalition leader. In addition, the duration analysis results suggest that geographical proximity between members of Congress “overcomes” ideological distance. Finally, the spatial duration approach is noted as a fruitful methodology for examining explicitly spatial patterns in both ideological or geographical space.     

What really goes on in Silicon Valley? Spatial clustering and dispersal in modular production networks

Is the geographic trajectory of capitalism toward spatial clusteringor dispersal? Recent theoretical work in the stream of ‘relational’economic geography includes several dynamic elements that increasethe importance of spatial clustering over time. This paper developsthe concept of ‘modular production networks’ toshow that spatial clustering and dispersal can be compatible,mutually reinforcing trends. Modular production networks encompassnodes of tacit activity linked through the exchange of codifiedinformation to create global-scale production systems. In placeslike Silicon Valley, industry participants rely on the benefitsof proximity to help build and manage global-scale productionnetworks.     

城市民族餐馆空间分布的区位选择及文化邻近性

民族餐馆是餐饮服务业的特殊形式，认识其行业性质及文化特性是理解民族餐馆空间分布的关键。本研究以郑州、开封和洛阳为案例，从市场区位选择、文化邻近、城市格局等多个维度，对城市民族餐馆分布进行了探索性分析。研究发现，城市民族餐馆分布在空间分布结构上呈等级扩散分布，其集聚核心大多位于城市传统商业服务业中心；商圈、大学、医院等人口密集区，是城市民族餐馆市场选择的重要区位。民族餐馆与城市商圈具有较高的空间重合度，与大学、医院等区位要素空间关系因城而异。商圈周边布局民族餐馆的概率较高；城市民族餐馆在少数民族居住生活区域高度集中，民族商业文化传统对民族餐馆分布具有向心集聚作用。本研究认为城市民族餐馆分布取决于城市发展格局、市场区位选择及文化邻近的综合作用，民族餐馆的分布概率因城市规模大小、区位地点差异及空间尺度而发生变化。     

Regional Concentration of the Knowledge-based Economy in the EU: Towards a Renewed Oligocentric Model?

This paper aims to contribute to a better understanding of the Knowledge-based Economy spatial distribution across the European Union (EU) regions (NUTS II), linking recent research approaches on innovation and structural change with approaches to regional economics. As a means of conducting this research, we classify economic activities according to six sectors based on their knowledge/technology intensity. Our results show that the higher the knowledge/technology content of the economic activity, the higher the concentration level of the activity. We find that some service activities (those considered knowledge intensive) have similar concentration levels to those operating in high or medium tech manufacturing. With regard to specialization, the most outstanding result is the strong presence of high and medium knowledge intensive service activities in metropolitan/capital regions. In general, our results reinforce the notion that an oligocentric model persists in Europe, with the southern German regions leading high and medium tech manufacturing, the south-east of England leading in high knowledge-intensive services, and with the mid-core model exemplified by the European metropolitan archipelago (particularly capital cities) in both northern and southern Europe.