Diaphyseal remodelling in leprosy: A radiological and palaeopathological study

Diaphyseal remodelling is a pathological process of the proximal phalanges, metatarsals and metacarpals in all established types of clinical leprosy. It is suggested that the changes are the result of sympathetic neuropathy and alteration of peripheral vascular bed dynamics selectively stimulating extracortical osteoclastic and endosteal osteoblastic activity. There is an overall loss of diaphyseal cortical diameter, either in concentric or knife-edge pattern. There is extracortical absorption of bone and coincident endosteal bone deposition. Ultimately, there is diaphyseal pathological fracture, and subsequent resorption of the distal and proximal remnants due to combined continued diaphyseal remodelling and achroosteolysis.     

The chronology of epiphyseal union in the hand and foot from dry bone observations

Dry bone data for epiphyseal union at the hand and foot are scarce, incomplete or inexistent. This study documents the timing of fusion of secondary ossification centres at the hand and foot in a sample of known‐age human skeletons. The sample comprises 92 individuals (49 females and 43 males), between the ages of 9 and 22 years, from the identified skeletal collection curated at the National Museum of Natural History in Lisbon, Portugal. Epiphyseal union was recorded on the right and left side at the long bones of the hand (metacarpus and phalanges) and foot (metatarsus and phalanges), and also at the talus and calcaneus, using a three stage scheme (non‐fused; partially fused and completely fused). In the hand, intra‐observer agreement was 99% and inter‐observer agreement was 98%. In the foot, both intra‐ and inter‐observer agreement reached 100%. Lateral asymmetry was not significant and only 1.1% of the individuals in the sample were found to be asymmetric in the stage of epiphyseal fusion (1.8% in the hand and 0.3% in the foot). A minimum mean advancement of 1–2 years in females relative to males was observed. In the hand bones, epiphyseal union occurred between 12–18 years in females and 16–18 years in males. Comparatively, in the foot bones, epiphyseal union occurred slightly later, with the exception of the talus and calcaneus, which are the earliest bones to mature. Data in this study can be used to estimate the age of unidentified skeletal remains, either directly or by aiding in the modification of incomplete or imprecise data that have been collected over the years. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Methods for inferring paleohabitats from the functional morphology of bovid phalanges

The functional morphology of postcranial remains can be used to infer habitat preference. This approach is typically considered an “ecomorphological” method, and has frequently been applied to bovid postcranial remains. Methods for predicting habitat preference from bovid postcrania currently exist for femora, metapodials, and astragali. Here we describe three methods for predicting paleohabitats using measurements of African bovid phalanges (proximal, intermediate, and distal). The proximal phalanx method correctly predicted the habitat preference for 130 of 183 modern bovid specimens (71.0%, 2.8 times better than chance, p < 0.0001). The intermediate phalanx method correctly predicted the habitat preference for 115 of 163 modern bovid specimens (70.6%, 2.8 times better than chance, p < 0.0001). The distal phalanx method correctly predicted the habitat preference for 87 of 122 modern bovid specimens (71.3%, 2.8 times better than chance, p < 0.0001). These accuracies compare well with those of existing such methods (1.8–3.4 times better than chance). Analysis of the probabilities associated with the habitat predictions allows confidence thresholds to be established that identify specific predictions which have <5% chance of being in error. This raises the effective accuracy of the methods to 95%. Extensive exploration and manipulation of the underlying data demonstrate that the habitat predictions are generally robust, and are relatively independent of body weight, taxonomy, and sample composition. These methods are broadly applicable, relatively accurate, and can be used to generate independent predictions of habitat from different elements, and thus constitute a useful approach to inferring past environments.     

Identification of tarsal coalition and frequency estimates from skeletal samples

Tarsal coalition is a congenital defect that results when adjacent tarsals fail to separate properly during embryonic development. Anatomically, coalitions present as non‐osseous bridges of cartilage or fibrocartilage – and occasionally as osseous bridges – between two neighboring bones. In skeletons, non‐osseous tarsal coalitions are recognizable as matching lesions between two bones at predictable locations. These coalitions are of interest because they are known to be heritable and are therefore useful for tracing genetic relatives in archaeological cemeteries, because they can be misinterpreted in skeletons as trauma or joint disease, and because they can result in associated pathology. However, despite a considerable literature on tarsal coalition, estimates of coalition frequencies disagree considerably, perhaps due to biases inherent in clinical sampling. In order to gain a better estimate of tarsal coalition frequencies in human populations, data were gathered on 342 European‐Americans from the Terry Collection (Smithsonian Institution), 536 South Africans from the Dart Collection (University of Witwatersrand, South Africa), and 756 medieval Danish skeletons (Anthropological Database, Odense University). The Danish skeletons are archaeological, with sample sizes by coalition type ranging from 366–507 individuals. Examples of eight different types of intertarsal coalition were identified among the 1634 skeletons examined. Overall frequency estimates for tarsal coalition ranged from 2.1%–3.5%. South Africans exhibited significantly higher frequencies in the midfoot, with naviculocuneiform I coalition (1.0%) the most common type. Conversely, no coalitions of the midfoot were found among the Euro‐Americans or medieval Danes. Instead, these groups exhibited calcaneonavicular coalition as the most common type in the hindfoot (2.0% and 2.1% respectively), while calcaneonavicular coalition was among the least common in the South Africans (0.2%). Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The distribution of osteoarthritis of the hands in a skeletal population

The distribution of osteoarthritis of the hands was studied in 101 skeletons from archaeological sites in England. The results are similar to those found in epidemiological studies of modern populations. Osteoarthritis of the hands was more common in females than in males, and in females tended to involve a greater number of joints. The distal and proximal interphalangeal joints were commonly affected, the former more frequently than the latter, but otherwise the disease was largely confined to the first ray of the hand, centred on the trapezium. It is concluded that the pattern of osteoarthritis in the hand has probably not changed greatly over several hundred years.     

Assessing the reliability of criteria used to identify postcranial bones in sheep, Ovis, and goats, Capra

Criteria developed to distinguish between selected postcranial elements of sheep and goats are evaluated using modern specimens from the collections of the Field Museum of Natural History, the National Museum of Natural History, and the Museum of Anthropology and the Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan. Elements considered are: the distal humerus, proximal and distal radius, distal tibia, distal metapodials, astragalus, calcaneus, and the first and second phalanx. This evaluation includes an assessment of 1385 elements from 49 goat and 84 modern sheep skeletons. It also includes a blind test on elements drawn from 20 specimens taken by six analysts with differing levels of experience. Overall, the criteria evaluated are highly reliable, especially in goats and only slightly less so in sheep. A major exception is the distal tibia, where diagnostic criteria tested proved substantially less reliable than other criteria evaluated here. Strongly positive results were also obtained when the sample was partitioned by sex, domestic status, and age. Results of the blind test show some variability depending on the level of experience of the analyst, underscoring the need for training and access to adequate modern reference collections before attempting to apply these criteria to archaeological assemblages. The results of this assessment stand in stark contrast to those obtained in an earlier assessment of the reliability of criteria used to distinguish between mandibles and mandibular teeth of sheep and goats. In all but a few teeth, dental criteria proved to be much less reliable, especially in goats. They were also significantly less reliable in the identification of both younger and older animals. Unlike dental criteria, there are no biases introduced by variable reliability of postcranial criteria that distort taxon-specific harvest profiles based on long-bones.     

An exploration of character traits and linear measurements for sexing mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella) skeletons

The skeletal elements of mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella) have proven difficult to sex with statistical confidence due to wide overlap in the body size of the two sexes. We studied a sample of 53 modern mountain gazelle skeletons to determine which character traits and metric measurements best predict sex. The success of the character traits was determined using blind tests while the metrics were examined using discriminant function analysis. The most useful elements include the previously identified horn core, pubis and atlas, but also some new bone portions that preserve well in the archaeological record (e.g., distal tibia, distal metacarpal and metatarsal, and second phalanx). Surprisingly, two elements commonly used in sexing analyses (distal humerus and astragalus) were not among the most effective elements. Although cutting points and discriminant functions for sexing gazelle bone portions are presented here, they do not account for potential body size change and thus are not suited for direct application to archaeological assemblages. Instead, we provide guidelines for application to archaeological gazelle assemblages, most importantly a regression analysis that considers the sex ratios obtained from multiple measurements to predict the sex ratio of archaeological gazelle populations.     

The utility of hand and foot bones for the determination of sex and the estimation of stature in a prehistoric population from west-central Illinois

This study focuses on hands and feet as indicators of sex and stature for Native Americans, hitherto relatively neglected in this regard. The study was performed on a large, well-preserved prehistoric skeletal sample from west-central Illinois. Discriminant functions are presented which determine sex with accuracies exceeding 87%. Those functions are then tested on three other Native American samples and found to have similar high degrees of accuracy. The utility of hand and foot bones for estimation of femur length (and subsequent inclusion in stature estimation equations) is also explored. While indirect estimation of stature is determined to be possible in this manner, it is suggested that these and other stature estimation techniques that have large standard errors may be of limited archaeological or forensic value. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evaluations of sex assessment using weighted traits on incomplete skeletal remains

Several studies have presented a variety of sexually dimorphic traits on the skeleton offering possibilities to score these traits for sex determination. However, few have discussed how fragmentation of skeletons affects the reliability of the results, and how to assess sex attribution based on a variety of methods. In the present study sex was determined for 354 skeletons from the medieval Swedish town Sigtuna, using well‐recognized sexing techniques on the pelvis, skull and femur. The preservation of the skeletons varied markedly, thus affecting possibilities for sex assessments. An attempt was made to evaluate the result of the sex assessment when weighting of different traits with different scales was used. The resulting estimation for each individual was called total mean value A. In addition, a total mean value B that considers unobservable missing traits was estimated. It can be concluded that both weighting and fragmentation affect sex assessments of incomplete skeletons. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Skeletal markers of occupational stress in the Fur Trade: A case study from a Hudson's Bay Company Fur Trade post

The Seafort Burial Site (FcPr100) is a Fur Trade Period cemetery located near the town of Rocky Mountain House, Alberta. The results of recent analysis of skeletons recovered during salvage excavations between 1969 and 1971 suggest that three males in this sample were voyageurs in the employ of the Hudson's Bay Company. Vertebral osteophytosis and osteoarthritis, Schmorl's nodes, muscle origin robusticity and new bone formation at entheses and syndesmoses, and osteoarthritis at the elbow and shoulder joints provide evidence for carrying, lifting, and paddling or rowing. The presence of accessory sacral facets also may be stress-related. In addition, the development of accessory articular facets on the metatarsals and proximal pedal phalanges may indicate activity-induced stress from hyperdorsiflexion of the toes in habitual kneeling, such as when river canoeing.     

Universal methodology for developing univariate sample-specific sex determination methods: an example using the epicondylar breadth of the humerus

In this paper we present a new methodology for developing sample-specific metric sex determination methods using unidentified individuals that can be applied to archaeological samples. This methodology does not require the assessment of sex of a large sample from pelvic morphological features as a first step in developing the method and instead is developed from a sample of individuals with sex unknown. The procedure involves using the overall mean of a measurement collected from the sample of unknowns as the discriminant criteria for determining the sex of the individuals in that same sample. Experiments with various sample sizes and sex ratios using distal humerus measurements from the Coimbra Collection (Portugal) suggest that allocation accuracies of 83–96% can be expected when the sample used to develop the method is greater than 40 individuals and the sex ratio is less than 1.5:1. The utility of the methodology is explored using the Lisbon Collection (Portugal) and an archaeological sample from Belleville (Canada) is tested as an example. The Lisbon Collection data indicate that joint measurements of long bones will provide the highest allocation accuracies. The results from the Belleville sample confirm that humerus joint measurements consistently provide the highest allocation accuracies (88–100%) even when the sex ratio in the sample used to develop the method is estimated at 1.9:1.     

A Micro Computerized Tomography (X-RAY MICROSCOPY) of the Hand Phalanx of the Denisova Girl*

In 2010, the complete mitochondrial genome of a fossil hominin from Denisova Cave, Altai was sequenced on the basis of mtDNA extracted from the hand phalanx of a girl. Modern micro tomographic techniques mark a new stage in the morphological study of extant and fossil hominins, offering opportunities to work with fragmentary material. We have used the nondestructive method of micro computerized tomography for a comparative histological assessment of the Denisova girl's biological age. The diaphyseal and metaphyseal parts of the phalanx, reflecting different ontogenetic stages, were undergoing rapid growth. The histological pattern of the walls of the diaphysis, specifically the lamellar structure with rare osteons, indicates a stage corresponding to 6–7 years in modern children. An altogether different pattern, resembling that of adults, was earlier observed in a Neanderthal child from Okladnikov Cave, Altai. The resemblance between the Denisova individual and extant humans in certain features of growth and skeletal maturation may point to the very early origin of the modern skeletal growth pattern. The Neanderthal pattern is quite distinct and may have originated after these hominins had branched off from the common stem.     

Metaphyseal fibrous defects in juveniles from medieval Norwich

Two juvenile skeletons excavated from medieval Norwich each have a well‐defined cystic cavitation. One involves the distal femur and the other the proximal tibia. The dry bone and radiographic appearance, as well as the location and age of the individuals, support a diagnosis of metaphyseal cortical defects. Although well‐known in clinical practice, especially in children, this appears to be the first published evidence for the condition in British archaeological material. No other anomalies were detected on the two skeletons. However, the occurrence of two cases in the same cemetery raises the possibility of a genetic influence in the condition. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Domestic Camelids (Cetartiodactyla: Camelidae) from the Middle Formative Cemetery of Topater 1 (Atacama Desert,Northern Chile): Osteometric and Palaeopathological Evidence of Cargo Animals

The Middle Formative Cemetery of Topater 1 (ca. 500 bc –100 ad ), located in the oasis of Calama, Northern Chile, presents an unusually diverse array and quantity of funerary offerings, distributed among the graves of more than 200 individuals. Among the offerings are the remains of several mummified camelids and camelid skeletal elements, primarily distal extremities and artefacts made from the bones of these animals. Taking only the first skeletonised anterior and posterior phalanges of Topater 1 camelids, we conducted univariate and multivariate osteometric analyses in order to assign the sample to the appropriate taxonomic groups. At the same time, we described all osteopathologies registered for the extremities in the collection. Of the 45 phalanges measured, 30 were of similar or greater size than contemporary reference llamas. Fourteen of the 164 samples of bone extremities presented pathologies, most of them first phalanges. These abnormalities included different degrees of exostosis and, less commonly, eburnation and lipping. Considering both lines of evidence, we conclude that the llamas sacrificed at the Topater 1 cemetery correspond to, at least, two very large and robust cargo llama morphotypes. When living, these animals would have transported goods as part of the intense exchange activity that was taking place during this period in the region extending from the Pacific coast to Northwest Argentina and perhaps even beyond. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The frequency of os acromiale in the Robert J. Terry Collection

Normal fusion of the acromion process in humans begins at about age 15 and should complete ossification by age 22–25. Os acromiale occurs when fusion of the acromial epiphysis does not follow its normal ossification pattern, resulting in the retention of a separate epiphyseal end to the acromial process. Depending on how the metaphyseal junctures fuse, differential size and shape of the unattached acromial segment is produced. As a result of shoulder anatomy and the mobile epiphysis, os acromiale is associated with shoulder impingement and rotator cuff problems. The purpose of this study is to document the frequency of os acromiale in the Robert J. Terry Collection and gain a perspective on the occurrence of os acromiale in this specific US population. The overall frequency of os acromiale in the sample of 1594 skeletons was 8.34%. This study also evaluates the prevalence of os acromiale between sexes and ancestral groups in the Terry Collection. Significant frequency differences in the expression of os acromiale were found between both ancestry and sex; the black male sample has the highest frequency (12.47%), with a lower occurrence in the black female sample (9.22%). The white sample exhibited observably lower frequencies, with the white males at 6.8%, and white females at 3.2%. Size and shape and side expression (laterality) showed no significant differences between the sexes. However, significant differences in laterality by ancestry were observed; black males exhibited 48.3% bilateral expression, while white males exhibited bilateral expression only 29% of the time and 54.8% had a right lateral expression. Based on the results presented in this study, it is suggested that there is a genetic causation for os acromiale, which may or may not be exacerbated by physical activity. The use of this anomaly as an additional non‐metric feature in inferring familial relationships and personal identification is discussed. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Skeletal Material from the Cemetery of the 19th Century Copenhagen Hospital for the Poor: Autopsies,Surgical Training and Anatomical Specimens

The skeletal material of 299 individual skeletons was recovered from 78 graves in central Copenhagen in 2006. The graves were part of a temporary cemetery serving the Copenhagen Hospital for the Poor in the period 1842–1858. It is known that the hospital supplied cadavers for teaching and dissection. Fifty‐two skeletons and bones were found to have cut marks and saw marks, indicative of post mortem surgical interventions: dissection, autopsy, anatomical specimens and surgical practice. The material was closely examined for healing at the sawn edges and signs of diseases. It was attempted to differentiate the surgical procedures from one another and give an overview of the material and historical context. We were mostly unable to attach a specific post mortem surgical procedure to the skeletal elements; however, we present some cases that most likely represent a specific surgical intervention. An excavation of similarly processed bone material from London Hospital from the same time period was used as the main reference material. The skeletal material described here offers a view upon the medical development, teaching and training amongst surgeons and anatomists in mid‐19th century. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Split phalanges from archaeological sites: evidence of nutritional stress?

Broken animal phalanges from archaeological sites have been widely used as an indicator of nutritional stress of the prehistoric people due to the low caloric return rate (caloric yield/processing time) of the phalanges. Although it sounds logical, this widely popular argument is based on Binford’s (1978) interview with the Nunamiut and lacks empirical support. In this study, we present the results of experimental studies conducted on 142 modern cow (Bos taurus) and deer (Odocoileus virginianus) first phalanges to document the processing of phalanges, such as the required force and processing time to break them open, possible methods of breaking phalanges, and the resultant breakage and surface modification patterns. This comparative dataset and ethnographic data from contemporary hunter-gatherer groups indicate that broken phalanges in and of themselves cannot be taken as evidence of resource stress. The phalanges do not require substantial amount of processing time and marrow from the phalanges could have been preferred for its taste and soft texture during the period when resources were not scarce. This may explain the bone breakage pattern from an 8800 year old archaeological assemblage from Tangzigou in southwest China, where phalanges were intensively broken without any other evidence of resource stress.     

Sex assessment of medieval Norwegian skeletons based on permanent tooth crown size

The excavation of the Library site in Trondheim uncovered the medieval cemetry of St. Olav's church containing 388 skeletons, of which 248 had skulls with teeth. Sex assessment was based on osteological criteria, and for 145 skeletons sex classification was performed with a high degree of certainty. The remaining 103 were classified as uncertain male, uncertain female and sex undetermined. Mesio-distal and facio-lingual crown widths of permanent teeth in the group of reliably assessed males and females were used in sex-discriminant analyses. A combination of two or more teeth was less effective in discrimination than using one tooth alone. This was due to missing data in the combined variable sets and thereby loss of cases. Missing variables were due to post-mortem tooth loss, attrition or large deposits of calculus. The teeth were ranked according to their power in sex discrimination. The left maxillary first molar (26) represented by its facio-lingual dimension was the best sex discriminator (classified 85 per cent of the cases correctly), followed by the right maxillary first molar (16) also represented by its facio-lingual dimension (classified 77 per cent correctly). With only one variable in the discriminant function, a critical value could be calculated and tabulated for each tooth. This was used in sex assessment of the osteologically undetermined and uncertain groups. Only variables that could sex classify correctly at least 70 per cent of the cases with the Jack-knife procedure were used. Sex assessment could be made for 16 of 24 (66.7 per cent) of the osteologically sex-undetermined adult individuals and for 21 of 44 (47.7 per cent) of the children. Of 35 osteologically uncertainly sex-assessed skulls, only nine (six men and three women) corresponded with dental classification.     

Palaeopathological evidence of infectious disease in skeletal populations from later medieval Serbia

Published data on palaeopathology are limited from the area of Serbia. This paper provides evidence for infectious disease in 1617 skeletons from eight Medieval Serbian cemeteries. Two hundred and three individuals were analysed by the first author and data on the remaining skeletons were derived from previous published work. A total of 23 adult individuals, and no non‐adults, had evidence of infectious disease. Historical data on infectious disease at that time are considered, particularly leprosy, treponemal disease, and infections affecting only the soft tissues, such as the plague, dysentery, smallpox and rabies, and the results of the analyses compared, with discussions on the limitations of the study. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.