New radiocarbon dating of the transition from the Middle to the Upper Paleolithic in Kebara Cave,Israel

The Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition (MP-UP transition) is considered a major technological and cultural threshold, at the time when modern humans spread “out of Africa”, expanded from the Levant into Europe and possibly into central and northern Asia. The dating of this techno-cultural transition has proved to be extremely difficult because it occurred sometime before 40,000 radiocarbon years before present (¹⁴C years BP), which is close to the end of the effective dating range of radiocarbon. Other dating methods such as Thermoluminescence (TL) or Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) are not sufficiently precise to date the recorded archaeological MP-UP transition in the Levant. Here we report a consistent set of stratified radiocarbon ages on freshly excavated charcoal from Kebara Cave, Mt. Carmel (Israel), that span the late Middle Paleolithic (MP) and Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) This study applied novel strategies to improve sample preparation techniques and data analysis to obtain high-resolution radiocarbon models. From this study it is proposed that the MP-UP transition for this site can be placed immediately after 45,200 ± 700 ¹⁴C years BP and before 43,600 ± 600 ¹⁴C years BP or from 49/48 to 47/46 radiocarbon calibrated years before present (years Cal BP).     

Human activity and its impact on the landscape at the Xishanping site in the western Loess Plateau during 4800–4300 cal yr BP based on the fossil charcoal record

The taxonomic identification of fossil charcoal can be a useful archaeobotanical tool, as it can reveal information about prehistoric humans' use of plant resources and other factors. In this study, we quantify the fossil charcoal in a cultural sequence from Xishanping in the western Loess Plateau of China representing 4800–4300 cal yr BP to consider aspects of humans' impact on this landscape. The fossil charcoal assemblages reveal that the relative abundances of Picea, Betula, Acer, Ulmus and Quercus decreased markedly after 4600 cal yr BP. This suggests a marked decline in the mixed coniferous-broadleaved forest after this time. Concurrently, an increasing abundance of Bambusoideae charcoal has been suggested to reflect the expansion of the bamboo forest. The marked changes in the vegetation after 4600 cal yr BP were not obviously influenced by climate; they may be a better reflection of the results of human activity. Furthermore, other genera that provide important resources to humans also increased after 4600 cal yr BP, including Castanea, Cerasus, Padus and Diospyros. It is nearly certain that nuts and berries were an important food resource and that fruit trees were managed by prehistoric humans in the late Neolithic. This work suggests that the scale of prehistoric human impact on the western Loess Plateau landscape during the late Neolithic was much greater than was previously believed.     

Uranium and thorium distributions in fossil bones from Olduvai Gorge,Tanzania and Kanam,Kenya

The micro-distributions of uranium and thorium have been studied in fossil bone cortices in samples from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania and Kanam, Kenya, and compared with modern bones collected from the surface at Olduvai Gorge. Concentrations in excess of 800 ppm U and 200 ppm Th are recorded in sections of some fossil bones, whereas concentrations do not exceed 20 ppm U or 1 ppm Th in the modern bones. In fossil bones, Th has a larger intra-bone variation than U. The distribution profiles of the two elements across the fossil bone cortices are quite distinct and reflect differences in their geochemical behaviour in the supergene environment. In particular, the two possible oxidation states of U, compared with one for Th, allow U to be more mobile than Th, but also more susceptible to variations in the redox potential of the depositional environment. In some fossil bone samples secondary leaching of U has occurred, whereas Th is retained in the bone cortex. U is incorporated into fossil bone earlier than Th.     

Dating the Ramat Saharonim Late Neolithic desert cult site

The Ramat Saharonim site, located in the central Negev desert, Israel, consists of four shrines in a shallow valley and 30 tumuli, aligned on two cuesta cliffs on the valley's sides. Previous assessments based on site surveys suggested a general chronological span from Late Neolithic period (ca. 5000–5500 BC) through the Early Bronze Age (third millennium BC). Excavations in one shrine and three tumuli revealed a well-constructed double wall at the shrine and seven primary adult burials in the three tumuli. Quartz from sediment samples post-dating the construction of the burials and shrine was dated by optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) using the single aliquot regenerative dose (SAR) protocol, and charcoal and leather samples were dated by ¹⁴C. The OSL results for a burial in one tumulus are 7500 ± 700 to 6000 ± 600 years. In a second tumulus, OSL ages of 2000 ± 200–1800 ± 170 years and a ¹⁴C age on leather of 390–200 BC (2340–2150 cal BP) imply that this burial is Nabatean and that the site was used also in the Hellenistic period. Two ¹⁴C ages on charcoal from the shrine give an age between 5280 and 4710 BC (7230–6660 cal BP). OSL single aliquot ages for sediment from the shrine are highly scattered and far too old (60,000 to 12,000 years). The unlikely old ages are due to insufficient resetting of the OSL signal of some of the quartz grains when sand was blown onto the site. Indeed, single grain measurements for six samples of sediment postdating the shrine show a very large range of grain ages, but with a distinct young population in all samples. Ages calculated from these young populations average 5400 ± 800, in better consistence with the ¹⁴C dates and confirming our supposition that only some of the transported grains were reset at the time of deposition. The combined OSL and ¹⁴C dating shows that the shrines and tumuli are contemporaneous and attributes the complex to the Late Neolithic. This has clear ramifications for our understanding of the period and the rise of desert pastoral societies.     

Combining pollen and charcoal: evaluating Holocene vegetation composition and dynamics

Pollen analysis reveals vegetation change on a local and regional level over (ideally) continuous time spans but with complications when it comes to the reconstruction of spatially precise species occurrence and composition. Wood charcoal analysis provides site-related information on species occurrence and woodland composition, especially when sediments containing pollen are lacking, but is normally discontinuously available and has the danger of human bias due to potential selection of certain species for e.g. fire making, house construction or charcoal making. Combining the two methods – assuming that suitable palaeoarchives are neighbouring – might compensate for their disadvantages and strengthen the interpretations on vegetation composition and dynamics on a local, extra-local and regional scale. Three examples are given where pollen analysis from “classical” archives – mires and lake sediments – was carried out, and where additionally species identification of wood charcoals was done on samples extracted from close-by archives. The first example (Kugelstattmoos, Bavarian Forest, Germany) combines a Holocene pollen diagram derived from a small mire with late medieval/early modern times charcoal spectra from charcoal production sites which are situated on the margin of the mire. Results show the local occurrence of the main woodland species Fagus sylvatica and Abies alba, and raises new questions on the montane species composition of the formerly natural forests in the Bavarian Forest. The second example (Bargstedter Moor, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany) combines Holocene pollen diagrams from a peat bog with late medieval/early modern times charcoal spectra from charcoal production sites in a woodland close to the bog. It shows the role of Quercus, Fagus, Alnus and Carpinus in medieval and early modern times woodlands and its use by man. The third example (Kleiner Tornowsee, Brandenburg, Germany) combines pollen data from sediments of a small lake with charcoal data derived from Holocene colluvisols and soils. The examples show that anthracological and palynological data complement one another to create a more detailed picture of woodland history and landscape change than one method alone would provide.     

Charcoal analysis and dendrology: data from archaeological sites in north-western France

During the last 15 years, charcoal analysis of archaeological sites in north-western France has been carried out in conjunction with systematic and detailed dendrological examination. By considering these extrinsic criteria in association with the analytical results, palaeo-ethnographic and palaeo-environmental information can be obtained. The charcoals are classically identified under the microscope on the basis of their cellular structure. This examination is associated with an observation of the ligneous structure on transverse sections using a binocular lens. When charcoal fragments are large enough, the growth ring widths are measured. Tree ring curvature is also noted. Finally, alteration by fusion or radial cracks, the presence of fungal hyphae, and insect degradation are also recorded. Results are thus obtained on the nature of fuel used in domestic fireplaces and kilns. The selection of timbers and their catchment areas are also revealed. The average width of the growth rings in oak charcoal from domestic hearths coming from about forty sites in north-western France shows a significant increase from 6000 to 2000 BP. There is a similar increase in the number of heliophilic taxa used from the Neolithic to the Iron Age. This implies that the environment became more and more open because of use by society. The interpretation of the dendrology results applied to charcoal analyses is obtained through a convergence of criteria. Thus, charcoal analysis can provide more than just an identification of the species used, and can yield fundamental information on the interaction of society with the environment.     

Tempo and mode of formation of the Late Epigravettian necropolis of Arene Candide cave (Italy): direct radiocarbon evidence

Existing ¹⁴C dates of charcoal and bone samples from different layers of the Late Epigravettian sequence at Arene Candide (Liguria, Italy) place the formation of the deposit between 12,000 and 10,000 (uncal.) BP, but it is unclear how long this cave was used for funerary purposes. Clarifying this point has important archaeological and anthropological implications, given number and variety of inhumations. These include single and double burials of richly ornamented adults, adolescents and children and disarticulated accumulations of bones. Six new direct ¹⁴C AMS dates obtained from human skeletons place more precisely the necropolis at the Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene boundary, and appear distributed in two distinct groups that indicate two phases of funerary utilisation of the cave. Although separated by many centuries, the two phases of interment show recurring formal elements. Both groups include skeletons in anatomical connection exhibiting similar grave goods as well as chaotic accumulations of bones and, more importantly, the double burial of an adult with a child lying to its left. The reappearance of similar funerary patterns in the same site at two widely separated points in time suggests that the cave held a symbolic significance over several centuries. This, and the additional evidence of funerary use of the cave during the preceding Gravettian, points to the endurance of Upper Palaeolithic cultural traditions.     

Implications of age variation and sexual dimorphism in modern equids for Middle Pleistocene equid taxonomy

Interspecific variation in the equid lineage is limited when compared with other large mammal lineages, while a considerable amount of intraspecific ecomorphological variation occurs. This has led to considerable debate regarding the taxonomic status of palaeontological and archaeological equid remains. The possible confounding impact of sex and age variation on analyses of archaeological equid remains has so far remained untested. This could be especially problematic when it is unknown whether an assemblage contains more than one equid species, breed or hybrid. Here, sex and age variation in modern equid species is examined and compared to variation in Pleistocene equid assemblages from northwest Europe. Sex variation in the longbones of modern equid species was found to be lower than variation over time. Similarly, age variation in dental elements of the same species is predominantly lower than diachronic variation, although caution needs to be taken when an archaeological assemblages consists mostly of elements at a similar wear stage. To assess whether late Middle Pleistocene caballoid horse fossils should be assigned to multiple species or be considered to form a monospecific group, the coefficients of variation for measurements on fossil horse remains were compared with those for modern equid specimens. Results indicate that the fossil assemblages are similarly variable to samples of modern material. Taken as a whole, the late Middle Pleistocene caballoid horse lineage is equally variable to an assemblage of modern ponies of a variety of different breeds. This implies that the variation observed between samples dating from different parts of the Middle Pleistocene can be characterised as intraspecific variation within a single species reflecting ecomorphological adaptations to the changeable Pleistocene climate. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Charcoal reflectance measurements: implications for structural characterization and assessment of diagenetic alteration

Charcoal is a valuable source of archaeological and palaeoenvironmental proxy data. However growing evidence suggests that production conditions can strongly influence post-depositional alteration of charcoal. Consequently, both reconstruction of production temperature and understanding of the potential for diagenetic alteration are of great interest. Here, we use mean random reflectance (Ro_mean) in conjunction with other chemical characterization methods to address these questions. Ro_mean was obtained for a suite of modern analogue charcoal, produced under controlled conditions, and for a series of natural charcoal samples, obtained from archaeological and palaeoenvironmental deposits. Ro_mean proves to be a robust measure to assess formation temperature for samples produced at 400 °C and above, even after exposure to highly oxidizing conditions. Ro_mean is also useful for samples formed between 300 °C and 400 °C. However, if an assemblage of charcoals has been exposed to oxidizing conditions, lower temperature charcoals may be preferentially lost. It is apparent that charcoal produced at lower temperatures is more highly susceptible to chemical oxidation, and that there is a continuum in charcoal degradation potential, dependant upon fuel material and production conditions.     

Multidisciplinary approaches to defining historic period coastal and fluvial changes at Dunglass Burn,South East Scotland

An exceptionally thick (>2.5 m) fluvial and colluvial valley fill is described from the coastal reach of the Dunglass Burn, draining the Lammermuir Hills in south east Scotland. Buried by the valley fill is a series of charcoal accumulations interpreted as beacons to guide fishing boats, and an assemblage of large mammal bones. Radiocarbon assays on charcoal associated with these elements show them to be of early Medieval age. The onset of this extraordinary fluvial and colluvial sediment aggradation is considered to have begun at c. 1100 AD, although causation cannot be closely defined. The relations between the valley fill and securely dated built structures (buildings, bridges), an approach very infrequently explored, allow the cessation of aggradation to be dated to before the mid‐16th century AD. After c. 1600 AD incision has occurred to the present. The development of this valley fill is likely to have extensively altered the configuration of the coastline in the Medieval and early modern periods. The analyses emphasise the large magnitude of very recent landscape changes.     

Proboscidean die-offs and die-outs: Age profiles in fossil collections

Distinctive age profiles result from certain types of mortality processes that affect modern African elephants. Large collections of fossil proboscidean bones sometimes have similar age profiles—for example, those of the Lehner and Dent assemblages are identical to age profiles seen in modern drought-caused die-offs. Two other samples of mammoths (one from the Fairbanks muck deposits and one from a site near Waco, Texas) have age profiles suggestive of a stable age distribution in a mature population, resulting in the first case from long-term attritional mortality, and in the other case from sudden “catastrophic” mortality. Other fossil proboscidean age profiles that show high proportions of prime-age adults may have resulted from prolonged or recurring die-offs.     

New dates from Ushki-1, Kamchatka,confirm 13,000 cal BP age for earliest Paleolithic occupation

For many years cultural layer 7 at the Ushki sites, Kamchatka was considered to represent the earliest human occupation of Beringia, because four radiocarbon dates indicated an age of 16,000–17,000 calendar years ago (cal BP). In 2003, however, Goebel et al. reported that layer 7 more likely formed only 13,000 cal BP, nearly 4000 years later than N.N. Dikov, the site’s primary excavator, originally reported. Some researchers have downplayed the significance of the new dates, continuing to regard Dikov’s early dates as evidence that at least some of the hearth and dwelling features previously excavated at Ushki-1 date to as early as 17,000 cal BP. Here we present four new radiocarbon dates (and two previously unpublished dates) on curated charcoal from hearth features excavated at Ushki-1 more than 20 years ago. They indicate that these hearths and associated dwelling features date to about 13,000 cal BP. We now know 15 radiocarbon dates on charcoal from a variety of features and profiles across Ushki-1 and Ushki-5 that indicate the age of layer 7 is about 13,000 cal BP. We discount the four 16,000–17,000 cal BP dates, first, because two of them came from a deeply dug human burial pit and were likely secondarily introduced into the burial; second, because provenience data for the other two dated samples were never reported and do not exist in the records of the radiocarbon laboratories that produced them; and, third, because sediments immediately underlying layer 7 at Ushki-1 are only a few centuries earlier than 13,000 cal BP, providing an important lower-limiting age for the layer-7 occupation. We conclude that the age of all of the layer-7 features at Ushki-1 and Ushki-5 should be considered to be about 13,000 cal BP, at least until the earlier obtained old dates of 16,000–17,000 cal BP can be replicated.     

湖南道县玉蟾岩遗址早期陶器及其地层堆积的碳十四年代研究

位于湖南道县的玉蟾岩遗址包含大量灰烬,丰富的动物遗存,砾石和石片石器以及骨角器。从出土遗物,特别是人工制品来看,该洞穴应是一处旧石器晚期狩猎采集者的营地。洞穴堆积反映出人类的一系列短期活动或栖居,其间穿插着遗址被废弃的时期。微形态学研究显示堆积中的红色粘土条带是当时人类从洞外搬进来的。该遗址还出土了若干陶片,可以复原成2件或更多的陶器。多数陶片出自于1993和1995年的发掘。另有10多件陶片在2004和2005年的发掘中被发现。我们将在本文介绍该洞穴堆积的年代研究过程和结果,包括样品的采集、预筛选和前处理过程,以及最后对保存好的炭屑和骨头样品的测年。玉蟾岩遗址的年代为距今21000～13800年(校正后,后同),年代数据表明下层堆积中存在人类栖居的间断,陶片的年代为距今17,000～18,000年。这些陶片是在中国发现的制造陶器的最早证据之一。     

Prehistoric land use at an archaeological hot-spot (the rock art park of Campo Lameiro,NW Spain) inferred from charcoal,synanthropic pollen and non-pollen palynomorph proxies

Pollen, non-pollen palynomorphs and charcoal from a colluvial soil surrounded by prehistoric petroglyphs (Campo Lameiro, NW Spain) were studied in order to assess the nature of human activities and their impact on Holocene vegetation patterns. Several phases of anthropogenic impact were observed. (i) Between 7.6 and 6.5 ka cal BP, synanthropic taxa (Urtica dioica type, Plantago lanceolata type) and coprophilous fungi (e.g. Sporormiella-type) are indicative of early (pre-agricultural) creation of small patches of pasture using fire, possibly for incipient animal husbandry or as part of a deliberate strategy to improve game availability. Such activities only had a minor effect on the deciduous Quercus-dominated forest established earlier during the Holocene Thermal Maximum. (ii) Between 5.9 and 4.8 ka cal BP a more intense signal indicative of pastoral activity was detected, corresponding to the Neolithic period. (iii) Between 4.8 and 3.4 ka cal BP, which fits within the hypothetical timeframe of petroglyph creation, the synanthropic and humidity (e.g. Cyperaceae, Mougeotia) indicators diminished while charcoal concentration increased, which can be explained by Mid-Holocene cooling/drying (Neoglaciation) in combination with reduced human impact, or by non-pastoral activities in the area possibly in association with the development of the rock art culture, converting pasture to protected open ground through anthropogenic fires. (iv) During the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age (3.4–2.5 ka cal BP), grazing pressure and fire regime intensity are high, coinciding with evidence of regional forest regression, despite an amelioration in climate. (v) Later phases, not corresponding to prehistoric rock art contexts, include a phase of heavy grazing and reduced fire frequency (from ca. 2.5 to 1.2 ka cal BP) as well as the near complete elimination of the deciduous woodland, the expansion of ericaceous shrubland and the evidence of local agriculture and afforestation. These results are consistent with earlier studies in the area and highlight the spatial heterogeneity in the vegetation especially during periods of prehistoric anthropogenic interference.     

Preservation assessment of Miocene–Pliocene tooth enamel from Tugen Hills (Kenyan Rift Valley) through FTIR,chemical and stable-isotope analyses

We investigated fossil tooth enamel of mammals and crocodiles from two Mio-Pliocene East-African formations (Lukeino and Mabaget Fms) using infrared spectroscopy and chemical and stable-isotope analyses. Infrared spectra indicate that the fossil enamel contains biological apatite (bioapatite), without significant secondary carbonate contaminations. Several empirical infrared indexes were used to analyze the crystal–chemical characteristics of enamel. Fossil enamel has less organic matter, water and structural carbonate of apatite than modern enamel with which it was compared. Fossil apatite has a better crystallinity than bioapatite. The calcium/phosphorus mass ratio and the fluorine content of fossil apatite show intermediate values between bioapatite and geological fluorapatite. The samples also display significant crystal-chemical variations, depending on the vertebrate group (mammals vs. reptiles) and the taphonomic context (Lukeino Fm vs. Mabaget Fm). In spite of these changes, no relationship was observed between the chemical contents (carbonate and fluorine) and the stable-isotope ratios of carbonate (δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O) in fossil enamel. Preservation of the palaeoenvironmental signals is strongly supported by the fact that the stable-isotope composition of the three investigated fossil mammalian taxa (deinotheres, equids and hippos) is consistent with their ecological features. For instance, typical C₃- and C₄-plant isotope compositions are reflected in the deinotheres and equids, respectively, and amphibious hippos display lower δ¹⁸O values than terrestrial herbivores, as expected.     

Radiocarbon dating and the “old shell” problem: direct dating of artifacts and cultural chronologies in coastal and other aquatic regions

Archaeologists have long recognized the problem of the “old wood” effect in radiocarbon dating charcoal and wood samples, the age of which may be hundreds of years older than their use by humans. Such problems have resulted in significant changes in how most researchers select wood and charcoal samples for ¹⁴C dating, with many now using relatively short-lived carbonized materials for dating. Despite the significant strides made in our understanding of the potential biases of the “old wood” effect, little emphasis has been placed on the possible impacts of dating “old shell” in archaeological deposits. The use of marine shell for ¹⁴C dating is widespread in coastal areas around the world, including a growing emphasis on the dating of individual shell artifacts via Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS). In dating shell artifacts, we have obtained several dates older than associated ¹⁴C dates for short-lived subsistence remains from the same deposits, including great disparities (>10,000 years) and more subtle differences (≥100 years). These discrepancies appear to be due to the use of old shells by humans to make beads and other artifacts, including shells collected from fossil deposits, older archaeological sites, and beaches. The problems caused by the use of old shells to make beads and other artifacts are surmountable through careful sample selection, analysis of multiple ¹⁴C dates on a variety of materials, and proper calibration procedures.     

Fossil dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites in Belgium,the Ukraine and Russia: osteometry,ancient DNA and stable isotopes

Using multivariate techniques, several skulls of fossil large canids from sites in Belgium, Ukraine and Russia were examined to look for possible evidence of the presence of Palaeolithic dogs. Reference groups constituted of prehistoric dogs, and recent wolves and dogs. The fossil large canid from Goyet (Belgium), dated at c. 31,700 BP is clearly different from the recent wolves, resembling most closely the prehistoric dogs. Thus it is identified as a Palaeolithic dog, suggesting that dog domestication had already started during the Aurignacian. The Epigravettian Mezin 5490 (Ukraine) and Mezhirich (Ukraine) skulls are also identified as being Palaeolithic dogs. Selected Belgian specimens were analyzed for mtDNA and stable isotopes. All fossil samples yielded unique DNA sequences, indicating that the ancient Belgian large canids carried a substantial amount of genetic diversity. Furthermore, there is little evidence for phylogeographic structure in the Pleistocene large canids, as they do not form a homogenous genetic group. Although considerable variation occurs in the fossil canid isotope signatures between sites, the Belgian fossil large canids preyed in general on horse and large bovids.     

河南境内古人类及旧石器遗存的发现及其问题

河南省自1954年发现第一块旧石器时代人工制品以来,境内已发现众多古人类-旧石器遗址或地点,尤其是近十年来在许昌灵井发现了距今约10万年前的古人类头骨化石和数万件人工制品,在新密李家沟发现了新旧石器时代的地层及文化遗物,以及在栾川、登封和淅川等地发现了古人类化石或石叶技术,使之成为研究现代人类起源、新旧石器时代过渡等的热点地区。     

Mud-brick composition,archeological phasing and pre-planning in Iron Age structures: Tel ‘Eton (Israel) as a test-case

The eighth century BCE city at Tel ‘Eton (Israel) was destroyed by the Assyrian army, probably during Sennacherib’s campaign of 701. Building 101, sealed within the heavy conflagration caused by this destruction, was uncovered almost in its entirety on the top of the mound. From the beginning, it was apparent that the structure had two major building phases, and while its initial construction was of high quality, later additions were much inferior. Analyses of mud-brick walls for firing temperatures, texture, carbonate content, color, and dimensions approved the observation regarding the differences between the two phases, but consistently pointed out that one wall, initially attributed to the first phase, was analytically different, comprising an intermediate phase. This conclusion not only altered our understanding of the building construction, adding heretofore unknown building phase, but also gave us insights into the pre-planning of Building 101, indicating that some rooms had originally two doorways. Such a configuration allowed easy subdivision of spaces according to needs, without harming the overall structural stability. Differences in inner division of similar Iron Age houses were identified in the past and were attributed to differences in the life cycles of families. The evidence from Tel ‘Eton suggests that such future changes were taken into considerations when the structures were built.     

REVIEWING THE BRITISH LATE UPPER PALAEOLITHIC: NEW EVIDENCE FOR CHRONOLOGICAL PATTERNING IN THE LATEGLACIAL RECORD

Summary. Variation in Lateglacial lithic assemblages has led some researchers to sub-divide the British Later Upper Palaeolithic into two or more typologically distinct phases (Campbell 1977; Jacobi 1988). Until now, however, the chronological relationships between the different phases have been difficult to demonstrate. In this paper we present new dating evidence for two distinct blade technologies of Lateglacial type found in southwest Britain. The first corresponds to the 'Creswellian'(as defined by Jacobi 1991; Jacobi and Roberts 1992), and is dated to the earlier part of the Lateglacial Interstadial (c. 13–12,000 years BP); the second technology compares with European Federmessergruppen assemblages (literally, 'penknife group' industries, as described in Schwabedissen 1954) of the 'forested' phase of the Interstadial (c. 12–11,000 years BP). In addition to presenting the new dates, this paper explores the implications of treating the technologies as separate entities and puts forward preliminary ideas on differences in raw material use and other human subsistence behaviour.