Sexual dimorphism in diaphyseal cross‐sectional shape in the medieval Muslim population of Écija,Spain, and Anglo‐Saxon Great Chesterford,UK

Differences in adult male and female activity patterns may influence levels of sexual dimorphism in physical dimensions, including the cross‐sectional shape of long bone diaphyses. Previous studies of archaeological populations have demonstrated significant differences in diaphyseal shape between males and females. In this study, dimorphism in external diaphyseal shape of upper and lower limb bones (reflected in indices of external diaphyseal diameters), and bilateral asymmetry in these indices, were examined in two medieval populations: Muslim Écija (Spain) and Anglo‐Saxon Great Chesterford (UK). Attempts were made to relate observed patterns to documentary and other osteological evidence for differences in male and female activity patterns. While few significant differences in upper limb bone cross‐sectional shape were observed in either population, significant differences in shape were found in the lower limb diaphyses at Écija at the femoral midshaft and tibial foramen and midshaft levels, and at the tibial midshaft for Great Chesterford. Comparison with published data suggests that these differences are marked for Écija, and perhaps fairly high for Great Chesterford compared with other populations with an agriculture‐based economy. This is consistent with documentary and osteological evidence suggesting marked gender differences in behaviour in medieval Muslim Spain. No significant differences in bilateral asymmetry were found, but the effects of small sample size cannot be ruled out. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Metapodial asymmetry in draft cattle

Traction work by oxen has been well documented in various pictorial and written sources throughout human history. Analysis of metapodial dimensions has been carried out with the aim of quantifying asymmetry related to sexual dimorphism, body size and possibly heavy duty traction work. A modern reference sample of 103 animals from Hungary and Rumania has been used for this purpose. Bone measurements were correlated with bone density and morphological characteristics in order to make the results applicable for the identification of remains from draft cattle in archaeozoological assemblages. Asymmetry is more pronounced in the thoracic extremity and metacarpals of older or heavier animals, sometimes showing excessive widening of the third, medial ray within the fused bone. Relative broadening is also intensive in the distal end of medial metatarsals of cows and oxen. The bone mineral content of the medial carpal region attains mature density first. The weight of phalanges increases for a longer time in the laterally located toes.     

Morphological Characteristics of Healthy and Osteoarthritic Joint Surfaces in Archaeological Skeletons

Osteoarthritis is a major health concern in living populations, as well as being one of the most common pathological lesions identified in the archaeological record. The aetiology of the disease remains unclear, with a multi‐factorial influence of physical strain, age, genetics, and obesity. Previous studies have identified a relationship between the presence of knee osteoarthritis on the distal femoral joint and the morphology of the intercondylar notch, patellar groove, and medial condyle. The current study expands this research to investigate the relationship between distal femoral, distal humeral, and proximal ulnar joint morphology and osteoarthritis with 3D shape analysis techniques. These methods provide a more detailed analysis of joint morphology in order to determine any relationship between 3D shape and osteoarthritis. The results indicate a complex relationship between joint shape and knee osteoarthritis, with eburnated right femora showing a statistically significant association. The shapes associated with eburnated or affected femoral joints can be explained by osteophyte development, and therefore likely represent systematic shape changes and not a particular joint shape predisposing individuals to the condition. There was no identifiable relationship found in the proximal ulna or distal humerus, indicating that joint shape is unlikely to influence the development of the condition in the elbow joint and that any shape changes produced by osteoarthritis are not systematic or quantifiable. The joints analysed in this study were highly influenced by asymmetry, sexual dimorphism, and allometry, resulting in a small sample size of affected joints in many datasets. Further analyses of large skeletal samples are needed to more thoroughly investigate the possible relationship of distal femoral joint shape and osteoarthritis. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cortical index of three prehistoric human Pacific Island samples

To understand stress, attention must focus on the costs and limits of adaptation. The current study investigates two non‐specific indicators of stress in human skeletal remains from three prehistoric sites in the Pacific Islands as an attempt to understand differential responses to island environments. The samples used in this study represent both colonising and established populations and are spread geographically throughout the Pacific Islands. In the current study both inter and intrasample comparisons of cortical index (CI) and maximum femoral length are made. Within all the samples there is evidence of an age related decline in CI and a sexual dimorphism of CI and maximum femoral length. No significant correlations are found between the non‐specific indicators of stress and the temporal and spatial distributions of the samples. Overall, the indicators used in the current study show very similar results and therefore do not seem to reflect differential adaptation to Pacific Island environments through time and across island groups. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Sunghir 3 Upper Paleolithic Juvenile: Pathology versus Persistence in the Paleolithic

The Mid Upper Paleolithic Sunghir 3 late juvenile early modern human, from the most elaborate burial in the Pleistocene, had pathologically foreshortened and anteriorly bowed femora and, based on her dental enamel hypoplasias and transverse lines, sustained severe and persistent systemic stress throughout her decade of life. Her modest femoral and tibial asymmetry and her femoral bicondylar angles indicate non‐pathological patterns of posture and locomotion. The levels of rigidity for her weight‐bearing tibiae and the non‐dominant left arm reflect normal weight‐bearing and manipulation. These indicators are combined with an elevated level of right humeral strength, leading to pronounced humeral diaphyseal asymmetry, combined with elevated muscular insertion asymmetry. In combination with marked upper limb muscle markings and normal levels of bone formation, these reflections of her robustness indicate that she was fully mobile and participated actively in the tasks of her social group. There is no indication of the skeletal hypotrophy/atrophy that would be associated with less than full participation in the mobility and subsistence of her social group. As such, Sunghir 3 joins a growing list of developmentally or degeneratively pathological Late Pleistocene humans who nonetheless remained mobile and active. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cortical bone dynamics and age‐related osteopenia in a Longobard archaeological sample from three graveyards of the Veneto region (northeast Italy)

Since the contribution of Brothwell and co‐workers in early 1968, few studies have considered the cortical bone involution in European skeletal series of archaeological interest. The present study concerns the involutive process mechanisms and intra‐ and inter‐sexual variability in femurs of 66 adults belonging to three graveyards of the Longobard era excavated in the Vicenza province (northeast Italy). Cortical thickness and cortical and medullary areas were measured and a correlation matrix was generated for each sex and age class. Intra‐ and inter‐sexual variability were evaluated by two‐tailed t‐tests and a sexual dimorphism index. The results indicate a considerable difference between the sexes, with females showing an earlier and more marked cortical bone loss, as expected. Moreover, comparing the data with the scarce literature available, some discrepancies in cortical bone involution were found in populations with different patterns of adaptation, suggesting the need for further studies in this direction aimed at understanding bone environment dynamics. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Asymmetry in Metacarpal Cortical Bone in a Collection of British Post-Mediaeval Human Skeletons

Bilateral asymmetry in measures of metacarpal cortical bone, particularly second moments of area, in a group of 18th–19th century ad skeletons was investigated. The aim was to study variation in bilateral asymmetry with respect to sex and occupation. The skeletal material came from the crypt at Christ Church Spitalfields, London. The study sample comprised individuals with personal identifications from coffin plates. For a subset of the males, occupation was known from documentary sources. Results showed that bilateral asymmetry in second moment of area varied, to a limited extent, with occupation. Sex differences in bilateral asymmetry were also found.     

Three statistical methods for sex determination in extant and fossil caprines: assessment of the Rupicapra long bones

Sex determination of fossil remains in archeopaleontological contexts is a necessary step in order to gain insights in archaeological and paleobiological parameters such as prey selection and sexual dimorphism. Species with higher sexual dimorphism are more reliably sexed while the sex determination of less dimorphic animals is not attempted. In this study, we compared the accuracy of three different methods in the sex determination of a modern known-sex sample of chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica parva) from the Cantabrian range (Northern Iberian Peninsula), which is a small-sized ungulate with low sexual dimorphism when compared to other animals in which sex determination has been attempted (i.e., Ursus spelaeus, Capra pyrenaica). The three methods applied were mixture analysis (MA), cluster analysis (CA) and principal component analysis (PCA). Within CA we applied three different analysis: one agglomerative hierarchical method (AH) and two optimal partitioning methods (k-means and robust k-means); and within PCA we applied normal and robust variants of the analysis.     

Occlusal molar microwear and the diets of the Ipiutak and Tigara populations (Point Hope) with comparisons to the Aleut and Arikara

Archaeological excavations at Point Hope, Alaska uncovered skeletal remains of two populations: the Ipiutak (100 B.C.–500 A.D.) and Tigara (1200–1700 A.D.). Archaeological evidence indicates that, although both groups relied on animal (largely marine) resources for their subsistence, the Ipiutak were mainly caribou hunters, whereas the Tigara were primarily whale hunters. To date, no study has attempted to ascertain whether the inferred dietary differences of these two groups could be substantiated using a more direct technique, e.g. microwear or stable isotope analysis. In this study, the occlusal molar microwear fabrics of the Ipiutak and Tigara were analyzed. Comparative data for two other modern human groups, the Aleut and Arikara, were also examined. Significant differences in microwear signatures were detected among the groups considered. The results of this study show that the Tigara have significantly more microwear features, more pits and narrower scratches compared to the Ipiutak. These results are concordant with interpretations that the two Point Hope populations had significantly different dietary habits. Differences in microwear signatures between the Aleut and the two Point Hope populations were also detected. Compared to the two Point Hope populations, the Aleut has significantly fewer features and wider scratches. The Aleut microwear signature further differs from that of the Tigara in having significantly lower pitting incidence. The microwear pattern of the Arikara, who had a mixed diet, differed from that of the mainly meat-eating Aleut and Point Hope peoples in that the Arikara has significantly fewer features, lower pitting incidence and narrower scratches.     

Handedness and directional asymmetry in the long bones of the human upper limb

The long bones of the human upper limb usually show lateral asymmetries of length. This pattern can be attributed either to the mechanical consequences of handedness bias or to genetic or hormonal factors acting directly on longitudinal bone growth. Length data was obtained from the long bones of the upper limbs of a large skeletal assemblage from Wharram Percy, Yorkshire (England), predominantly deriving from the 11th-16th centuries A.D. The Wharram Percy adult skeletons had a population distribution of lateral asymmetries of length in the humerus and in the humerus-plus-radius (a proxy arm length index) which closely parallels the pattern of behavioural handedness found in modern populations. This pattern was developing in the skeletons from the infant and juvenile age ranges, but was absent in the neonates (of whom 12 out of 14 had longer left humeri). We argue that this supports the environmental hypothesis that the ontogeny of long bone length asymmetry is consequent to the earlier development of lateral bias in mechanical loading of the upper limbs.     

The Retromolar Space: A Morphological Curiosity Observed Amongst the Protohistoric Arikara and Mandan

The retromolar space (RMS), defined in palaeoanthropology as a space posterior to the third molar, between the distal edge of the tooth and the anterior margin of the ascending ramus when the mandible is held in lateral view, has been described as an autapomorphic trait unique to Neanderthals despite its presence in anatomically modern humans. This study examined RMS prevalence in a sample of protohistoric Arikara and Mandan Amerindians to determine what craniofacial morphology is correlated with the RMS. It was hypothesised that the feature would be present in the Amerindians studied and associated with a long cranial length, a large nasal height, midfacial prognathism, a broad mandible, and dental wear. The results indicated that RMSs were present in the Arikara and Mandan and significantly correlated with cranial length, cranial breadth, nasal height, bizygomatic breadth, basion‐nasion length, basion‐nasiospinale, mandible length, gonial angle, bigonial breadth, and dental wear. Thus, RMSs are associated with a dolichocephalic skull, wide cranial and facial breadth, a prognathic face, large nose and a corresponding wide and long mandible with a reduced gonial angle. This suggests that the RMS is the result of these features merging together in the craniofacial complex and should not be considered a Neanderthal autapomorphy. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

‘The brede of good & strong Horsis’: zooarchaeological evidence for size change in horses from early modern London

SUMMARY: Almost 200 horse bone measurements from 38 sites excavated across the city of London, dating to the period AD 1220–1900 were analysed. Results identified three main phases of size change: a reduction in size in the mid 14th to 15th century, and size increases in the mid 15th to 16th century and the 17th century. The decline in size testifies to the disruption of horse breeding in the wake of the Black Death, whilst the increases reflect purposeful attempts to increase the size of horses in England through a combination of regulated breeding and the importation of new bloodlines.     

Sexual dimorphism in limb bones of ibex (Capra ibex L.): mixture analysis applied to modern and fossil data

Estimating sex ratios of fossil bone assemblages is an important step in the determination of demographic profiles, which are essential for understanding the palaeobiology and palaeoethology of any particular species, as well as its exploitation patterns by humans. This is especially true for ibex (Capra ibex), which was a main source of food for hominids during Pleistocene times. Classical methods for determining sexual dimorphism and sex ratio, such as analyses using uni‐ and bivariate plots, are based on an arbitrary fixing of limits between sexes. Here we use a more robust statistical method termed mixture analysis (MA) to determine the sex of postcranial remains (long bones, metapodials and tarsals) from ibex. For the first time, we apply MA to both a modern and a fossil sample of one species, by using metric data taken from (i) a collection of present‐day ibex skeletons and (ii) a Palaeolithic sample of the same species. Our results clearly show that the forelimb (humerus and radius) is more dimorphic than the hindlimb (femur and tibia) and is therefore better suited for sexing ibex. It also appears that metapodials should be used carefully for estimating sex ratios. On the basis of these results, we propose a classification of bone measurements that are more or less reliable for sexing ibex. The results of MA applied to the ibex fossil bones from the Upper Palaeolithic site of the Observatoire (Monaco) lead us to the conclusion that this assemblage consists of a majority of males. The quantitative estimations calculated by the MA make it possible to compare the size of Pleistocene and modern ibex for the whole set of variables used in this study. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Zooarchaeological Evidence for Domestic Rituals in the Iron Age Communities of North‐Eastern Iberia (Present‐Day Catalonia) (Sixth–Second Century BC)

Many socio‐economic changes occurred in southern Europe during the first millennium BC. In north‐eastern Iberia societies evolved from the small‐scale local groups of the Late Bronze Age to the more complex societies of the Iron Age. Together with a diversity of material changes (detected in pottery, agricultural techniques, architecture, etc.), a new ritual manifestation is attested in the Ancient Iberian Period (about 550 BC), lasting until some time after the Roman conquest. This consisted of sheep and goats (among other species) being carefully deposited below the floors of some domestic buildings. In this article the characteristics of these associated bone groups are described and their significance is discussed.     

Sex estimation using cervical dental measurements in an archaeological population from Iran

Sex estimation of skeletal remains is one of the major components of forensic identification of unknown individuals. Teeth are a potential source of information on sex and are often recovered in archaeological or forensic contexts due to their post-mortem longevity. Currently, there is limited data on dental sexual dimorphism of archaeological populations from Iran. This paper represents the first study to provide a dental sex estimation method for Iron Age populations. The current study was conducted on the skeletal remains of 143 adults from two Iron Age populations in close temporal and geographic proximity in the Solduz Valley (West Azerbaijan Province of Iran). Mesiodistal and buccolingual cervical measurements of 1334 maxillary and mandibular teeth were used to investigate the degree of sexual dimorphism in permanent dentition and to assess their applicability in sex estimation. Data was analysed using discriminant function analysis (SPSS 23), and posterior probabilities were calculated for all produced formulae. The results showed that incisors and canines were the most sexually dimorphic teeth, providing percentages of correct sex classification between 86.4 and 100 % depending on the measurement used. The combination of canines and other teeth improved significantly the level of correct sex classification. The highest percentages of sex classification were obtained by the combination of canines and incisors (100 %) and canines and molars (92.3 %). The present study provided the first reference standards for sex estimation using odontometric data in an Iranian archaeological population. Cervical measurements were found to be of value for sex assessment, and the method presented here can be a useful tool for establishing accurate demographic data from skeletal remains of the Iron Age from Iran.     

Adult fracture patterns in prehistoric Thailand: a biocultural interpretation

The prevalence and distribution patterns of trauma in samples of human skeletal remains can reflect the risks to which the community was exposed in daily activities or as a result of interpersonal violence. This paper describes the patterns of non‐vertebral fractures in skeletal samples from four prehistoric Thai sites in terms of long bone fracture rates and individual prevalence rates. The sites range in date from c. 2000 BC (Neolithic) to 400 BC (late Bronze Age), and in environment from coastal estuarine to seasonally dry upland plains. These differences in the natural and cultural environment provided a basis for comparison among the samples representing nearly 300 adult individuals. The types of fractures ranged from simple to severe, but most had healed successfully with few limiting complications. The small bones of the hands and feet as well as clavicle and forearm bones were most frequently fractured among all samples. Overall there was an increase in the major long bone fracture rates from the Neolithic (0.3%) to the Bronze Age (3.0%) that may reflect a change in subsistence activities such as land clearance for the intensification of rice agriculture. The prevalence of ulnar fractures is particularly high in the Bronze Age, and the analysis of their possible cause, combined with evidence for craniofacial fractures, is suggestive of the presence of interpersonal violence in a small number of individuals. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Craniofacial morphology,diet and incisor use in three native American populations

It has been difficult to infer behaviours related to anterior tooth use in fossil hominids owing to a lack of broad‐based comparative studies of the relationships between front tooth use and craniodental features in modern humans. In this study, we seek to establish such a neontological baseline by exploring aspects of craniodental form among populations of recent humans that are inferred to have differed in habitual levels of ingestive and paramasticatory processing using the incisors. Morphometric data are compared among samples from three human populations: Aleutian Islanders (n=25); Arikara from the Mobridge Site, SD (n=19); and a late Woodland Bluff group from Jersey County, IL (n=24). Data for various biomechanically relevant dimensions were collected using standard callipers, while three‐dimensional (3D) coordinate data for 28 cranial landmarks were recorded using a video‐based image analysis system. These data indicate that several aspects of cranial form thought to influence the efficiency of force production on the incisors differ among the examined groups, including the positions and size of the primary masticatory muscles and the position of the dentition. For most dimensions, the Aleut sample exhibits the most mechanically advantageous configuration, the Illinois Bluff group the least advantageous configuration, while the Arikara are intermediate in form. This pattern corresponds to differences in the intensity of incisor loading among these groups, as inferred from both ethnographic reports and incisor microwear data. These results, therefore, suggest that cranial form in humans varies with subsistence‐related differences in masticatory force production and that quantitative studies of masticatory system configuration may provide useful information for studies of hominid palaeobiology. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Morphological changes in the shape of the non‐pathological bony knee joint with age: a morphometric analysis of the distal femur and proximal tibia in three populations of known age at death

This study examines possible morphological variation in the knee joint of Homo sapiens with increasing age in ostensively healthy and non‐pathological distal femora and proximal tibiae. Throughout the lifetime of each individual, the hard tissue of the knee undergoes considerable remodelling as a response to biomechanical stresses, changes in bone microarchitecture and reduction of bone mineral content as a concomitant of ageing. The knee is also subject to greater levels of degenerative joint disease than any other joint. If death occurs whilst such diseases are in the earliest stages, initial bone changes may not be visually obvious in museum specimens. If such specimens are used for comparative analyses, it is hypothesised that changes might render it problematic if all ages are conglomerated into discrete samples. This study therefore investigates the degree to which the distal femur and proximal tibia change shape during ageing and, if changes are present, whether they are expressed similarly in males and females. It also examines whether changes are of greater magnitude than those morphological differences which might exist between populations. In an example population of African‐Americans, results indicate that there is a statistically significant difference in shape between age groups and those differences become progressively greater between the youngest and oldest adults. Results also show that although morphological variation caused by ageing is apparent, those shape differences attributable to sexual dimorphism are more powerful. When two additional populations are analysed jointly with the African‐Americans (Caucasian Americans and the European Spitalfields sample), results indicate that inter‐population shape differences are considerably greater than differences caused by increasing age. Results imply that it is justifiable to combine specimens of all ages into discrete samples for comparative purposes. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.