Proceedings at Meetings of the Royal Archaeological Institute

Neolithic settlements are rare on the British mainland, and England in particular (Cooney 1997; Thomas 1999. 8–9 for somewhat differing comments}. One claimed site occurs at Portinscale 4 km west of the Castlerigg stone circle in the English Lake District where a number of stone axes and other artefacts were found in 1901. The finds were reported to consist of four unpolished stone axes, a number of ‘chippings of similar stone’ and of a ‘log…in an upright position, with the top rudely chipped as if by some clumsy instrument’ (Rawnsley 1902). The remains have sometimes been interpreted as those of a possible settlement where the axes were ‘finished’ or polished (Manby 1965, 3; cf. Fell 1950, 9), although Briggs (1989} noted that the axes also may have been used unpolished. The site is important in any discussion of the production of stone axes in the central Lake District (Bradley and Edmonds 1993). This paper reports the result of small-scale excavations designed to assess whether any material of archaeological interest survived on site and reviews the evidence reported by Rawnsley and that of stray finds of axes from the vicinity of Keswick and Castlerigg (Illus. 1).     

Three-dimensional recording by laser scanning of the petroglyphs at Rombald's Moor,West Yorkshire

Abstract

A variety of methods have been used to depict and document petroglyphs, from hand sketching to close-range photogrammetry. Most methods, however, record only a two-dimensional image, whereas petroglyphs are by their nature three-dimensional. Additionally, most methods suffer from inaccuracies resulting from the skill and subjectivity of the recorder or distortions imposed by the equipment and conditions under which the panel was viewed. Conventional three-dimensional recording techniques such as the use of traditional moulding and casting materials, may damage the petroglyph itself. An assessment of the various shortcomings of established rock art recording methods resulted in the field-testing of laser scanning with the objective of obtaining a quantitative, three-dimensional record of petroglyph panels and the creation of non-contact replicas. This paper presents the principles behind laser scanning and an account of field trial results of laser scanning rock art in situ at Rombald's Moor, West Yorkshire, England. The work presented was undertaken as part of the Rock Art Pilot Project commissioned by English Heritage in July 1999.     

试论数据采集与虚拟修复在大足石刻修复中的应用

文物作为一种不可再生的宝贵资源,其本体上的保护修复工作均需慎之又慎,需遵循国际上规定的“最小干预”及“可逆性”基本原则.为此,虚拟修复成为对文物动手修复时的重要辅助手段.然而,多数文物具有复杂立体结构和色彩,传统的虚拟修复技术难以实现逼真效果.三维激光扫描是近年来飞跃发展的一项高新测绘与信息技术,具有无损、空间精度高、速度快等突出优势,在文物数字留存及相关保护应用中发挥了重要作用.三维激光扫描技术与高清摄影技术相结合,为文物的虚拟修复带来新的契机.本文结合文物虚拟修复基本需求分析,提出了基于三维激光扫描技术的文物虚拟修复关键技术与工作流程,并以国家一号石质文物保护工程——大足石刻宝顶山千手观音造像的保护修复为例,进行了应用实践,综合历史资料和现有数据的分析,实现了三维形态及色彩的虚拟修复.结果表明,基于三维扫描的虚拟修复能够提供更为逼真的三维虚拟修复模型,供修复专家研究参考.     

Combining photogrammetry and laser scanning for the recording and modelling of the Late Intermediate Period site of Pinchango Alto,Palpa, Peru

This paper describes the 3D modelling of Pinchango Alto, Peru, based on a combination of image and range data. Digital photogrammetry and laser scanning allow archaeological sites to be recorded efficiently and in detail even under unfavourable conditions. In 2004 we documented Pinchango Alto, a typical site of the hitherto poorly studied Late Intermediate Period on the south coast of Peru, with the aim of conducting spatial archaeological analyses at different scales. The combined use of a mini helicopter and a terrestrial laser scanner, both equipped with a camera, allowed a fast yet accurate recording of the site and its stone architecture. In this paper we describe the research background, the 3D modelling based on different image and range data sets, and the resulting products that will serve as a basis for archaeological analysis.     

A new approach to recording and monitoring wet-preserved archaeological wood using three-dimensional laser scanning

The analysis and preservation of organic materials preserved within wetland environments represents one of the most costly parts of any post-excavation strategy. This paper outlines the application of high-resolution terrestrial laser scanning to one class of preserved material, worked archaeological wood. Scanning allowed the recording of the artefacts in three dimensions and the identification of features such as toolmarks. Features can be measured and volumetrically modelled within the digital environment, which may not always be possible for these often fragile materials using conventional techniques. Repeat scanning of the artefacts provided an opportunity to use comparative analysis software to investigate changes in the morphology of artefacts under contrasting conditions of short-term storage. The results suggest that immersion in water results in the least deterioration, whereas both freezing and air-drying caused distortion and degradation. This paper demonstrates that laser scanning provides a viable alternative post-excavation method for the recording, analysis and long-term ‘virtual archiving’ of organic archaeological materials, which may be more cost-effective in some instances than other methods of preservation.     

High‐resolution geospatial surveying techniques provide new insights into rock‐art landscapes at Shuwaymis,Saudi Arabia

Many parts of the Arabian Peninsula contain rock art that has received minimal archaeological attention or has not yet been thoroughly surveyed. In 2001 an extensive rock‐art complex called Shuwaymis, Ha'il Province, Saudi Arabia was brought to the attention of the Saudi General Commission for Tourism and Antiquities. This paper sets out the results of the first high‐resolution geospatial mapping and recording of rock art at this remote site. The research saw the innovative use of a differential GPS to record rock‐art panels to within 5 mm of accuracy at the site of Shuwaymis‐2, the first time that such technology has been used to record rock art in the Arabian Peninsula. With such technology it was possible to show which of eighty‐three late prehistoric rock‐art panels surveyed were in their original position and which had fallen, and to demonstrate that there was spatial homogeneity of rock‐art styles and composition across the site. The mapping recorded multiple panels of cattle, ibex, equid, large cat and other animals. The depictions of lions and cattle in particular indicate that the rock art must have been engraved no later than the early Holocene humid phase (c.10–6 ka BP).     

Kites — new discoveries and a new type

The stone structures known as kites and found widely in ‘Arabia’, are one of the more intriguing archaeological traces in what are often arid and bleak landscapes. They were first reported from the air in 1927, and by 1995 — largely through interpretation of old aerial photographs — c.500 had been identified. Now (2012), remote‐sensing techniques of various kinds have produced a huge increase, to over 3000. Recent work has also extended the geographical spread of kites in ‘Arabia’, from south‐eastern Turkey and north‐western Iraq to central Yemen. Much detailed work will be required to develop and refine a typology for kites as a whole and to digest and present data from remote sensing on which specialists may build interpretations and explanations. Current tabulation and mapping, however, already reveal patterns, and the discovery of an unusual form in the desert between Damascus and Palmyra in Syria deserves special attention.     

Vertical movements in the middle atmosphere derived from foil cloud experiments

Results obtained on vertical velocities of air in the mesosphere are presented which were measured by small foil clouds tracked by radar at Andenes (69°) during January and February 1984. The results (typically ± 4–6 m s⁻¹, up to 10 m s⁻¹, and oscillatory in nature) are in good agreement with those obtained by ground-based remote sensing methods. Supplementary observation techniques of the radar return signal show that the interactions between background wind and waves quite often cause small-scale flow separation effects which escape detection when conventional radar tracking is the sole source of information.     

The “Guerriero di Castiglione”: reconstructing missing elements with integrated non-destructive 3D modelling techniques

Accurately measuring an artefact of historical significance generally results in being able to extract information which is useful for evaluating what remains of the materials from a distant time. This allows scholars arrive at an exhaustive historical reading of the same artefact.Compared to the traditional measuring techniques, which can often be imprecise and complicated, 3D laser scanners measure the morphological characteristics of an artefact with extreme accuracy. Despite this, it is not always possible to choose the most appropriate sensors due to the geometric peculiarities, or indeed, the size of the object.The present work deals with two non-destructive analyses of an ancient stone sculpture, which for its morphology and size was scarcely compatible with the technical characteristics of either of the scanners used. Both scanners operate on the same technical principal, but are quite different from each other in terms of scale and precision. For these reasons, a complex 3D model (extremely appropriate given the original artefact) was draw out through a synergy of the two techniques.The virtual particularities of the model allowed it to be manipulated with the appropriate software. In fact, on the basis of qualitative parameters devised by researchers, it proved possible to reproduce the artefact’s geometric form, both virtually and in the form of physical models, obtained through non-conventional restoration methods (R.P. techniques).It has also been possible to verify the state of degradation of the surface of the stone caused by the traditional methods of applying cataloguing or storage information to it.Finally, the results achieved provide opportunities for further research on certain geometrical characteristics of the stone which, as highlighted by the elaboration on the virtual model, seem to be traceable to non-manual, perhaps mechanical, processes. Therefore, the historical considerations which derive from this fact call certain scholars into play.     

三维激光扫描技术在岩土文物保护中的应用

三维激光扫描是近年来飞跃发展的一项高新测绘与信息技术,在文物保护中发挥了重要作用介绍了三维激光扫描技术的主要特点,从岩土文物保护需求出发,结合实际文物保护工程,重点介绍了三维激光扫描技术在文物信息留存、虚拟修复、监测等方面的应用,最后指出三维扫描技术在岩土文物保护中的心用与发展须与保护需求紧密结合,而硬软件的改进完善及相关技术的集成心用亦是重要研究方向。     

多时相三维激光扫描技术在考古发掘过程中的应用——以江苏孔塘遗址为例

三维激光扫描技术凭借快速、准确、无需接触文物表面等优势,已被越来越多地应用于文物保护和考古发掘工作中。江苏句容孔塘遗址在发掘过程中运用三维激光扫描技术不断跟进扫描,全面真实记录发掘过程中的各类遗迹的空间数据。在顾及遗存特征的前提下,对多时相墓葬点云数据进行了空间匹配、分割和缺失数据拟合等后期处理,重建遗址三维场景,直观展示多期遗存的时空关系,为后期考古研究推理提供了数据支持。     

New discoveries in the Piramide Naranjada in Cahuachi (Peru) using satellite,Ground Probing Radar and magnetic investigations

The detection of buried earthen structures by using remote sensing techniques is still an open issue and a strategic challenge as crucial as it is complex. It is crucial because earthen archaeological remains are widely present thoughtout the world (in South America, Asia, Africa) and it is complex due to the subtle physical contrast between earthen remains and the surrounding subsoil.     

Using airborne small-footprint laser scanner data for detection of cultural remains in forests: an experimental study of the effects of pulse density and DTM smoothing

Cultural remains are laborious to register by means of field surveys. Thus, in recent years several trials using remote sensing data to detect cultural remains have been carried out. The most promising remote sensing technique for such purposes is airborne laser scanning (ALS) from which digital terrain models (DTM) that enable visual interpretations of anomalies on the ground are generated. Although it has been documented previously that ALS is a powerful data source for detection of cultural remains, it has not yet been carried out studies that focus on the effects of the point density of the ALS data and properties of the subsequent generation of the DTM on the detection success of cultural remains. Thus, this study aimed at analyzing these effects by letting four experienced archeologists interpret DTMs generated from ALS data with point densities of 1 p m⁻², 5 p m⁻², and 10 p m⁻², each with three different levels of DTM smoothing. The experiment was conducted according to a randomized complete block design and the analyses were carried out using analysis of variance. The results showed that there was a significant improvement in the detection success when the point density was increased from 1 p m⁻² to 5 p m⁻². There were also some improvements when increasing the point density further to 10 p m⁻², but they were less pronounced. Furthermore, the results showed that the DTM smoothing did not have any significant effect on the detection success.     

Interactive online tools for enhancing student learning experiences in remote sensing

The rapid growth in Information and Communications Technologies usage in higher education has provided immense opportunities to foster effective student learning experiences in geography. In particular, remote sensing lends itself to the creative utilization of multimedia technologies. This paper presents a case study of a remote sensing computer aided learning (RSCAL) program, which was developed in Australia to facilitate student active engagement with foundational knowledge and skills. We demonstrate how RSCAL has evolved to become scalable and responsive to newer pedagogical perspectives and emerging learner needs. It has become a recommended key resource in contemporary remote sensing education and training.     

Accuracy evaluation of the semi-automatic 3D modeling for historical building information models

It is stated that 3D recording and modeling of heritage buildings entail accurate building models (as-built). However, this paper presents an analysis of the 3D modeling accuracy for the creation of historical building information models (HBIM), considering the complexity and the deformations of historical buildings, using point cloud data and BIM tools. The 3D modeling processes analyzed are based on a three-stage semi-automatic approach leading to the generation of HBIM, including manual and automatic processes. The three stages consist of: (a) optical and terrestrial laser scanning; (b) meshing processes; and finally (c) 3D solid modeling to be assembled into HBIM. Next, this approach analyzed the mesh deformations generated automatically in comparison to the initial point cloud data. The deformations and the accuracy evaluation have been undertaken using different commercial software. Finally, our modeling approach shows that it can improve the accuracy of the 3D models achieved using existing BIM technologies.     

Developing a Collaborative Strategy to Manage and Preserve Cultural Heritage During the Libyan Conflict. The Case of the Gebel Nāfusa

The paper discusses the potential of a collaborative scheme for the development of a protocol for recording and managing the cultural heritage in Libya. The critical political situation in the country urges the development of cultural heritage management policies in order to protect it more thoroughly and consistently. Moving on from the numerous international initiatives and projects dealing with a mostly “remote” approach to the issue, the project here presented to engages with staff members of the Department of Antiquities (DoA) in the development of a joint strategy for the application of remote sensing and geographical information systems (GIS) to the preservation and monitoring of Libyan cultural heritage. A series of training courses resulted in an initial development of new ways of recording and analysing field data for a better awareness of the full range of threats that the archaeology of the country is subject to. Focussing on the case of the Jebel Nafusa, the training involved the assessment of site visibility on satellite imagery, the analysis of high-resolution satellite datasets for archaeological mapping, the creation of a GIS spatial database of field data, and the mapping of risks and threats to archaeology from remote sensing data. This led to the creation of of a risk map showing the areas that are affected by a number of threats, thus giving the DoA a tool to prioritise future fieldwork to keep the assessment of site damage up to date. Only a collaborative approach can lead to a sustainable strategy for the protection of the invaluable cultural heritage of Libya.     

Towards a Risk Management and Conservation Plan for the Djin Blocks at the World Heritage Site of Petra,Jordan: The Case of Djin Block No. 9

Cultural heritage is subjected to many pressures and risks. Over the past few years, the use of digital technologies has significantly changed the approaches to cultural heritage documentation for the purpose of condition assessment and conservation. The integration of novel approaches and techniques has permitted a detailed examination and assessment of damage, deterioration due to weathering and erosion, and their mechanisms. This study seeks to contribute to the preservation and conservation of the significant heritage of the so-called Djin Blocks at the World Heritage Site of Petra in Jordan. While these three dimensional cuboid rock-cut monuments have been subject to extensive conservation studies, this is the first time they have been subjected to 3D recording and multispectral photography, with the aim of recording damage caused by the ravages of time.

This study presents the results of the documentation of the case study Djin Block No. 9. A variety of systematic documentation techniques were used, including 3D recording with terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), close-range photogrammetry, multispectral imaging, and thermography records. In addition, pathological studies of the erosion from various causes and an analysis of the effect of weathering on Djin Block No. 9 are performed. Based on this data, the paper presents recommendations for developing risk management and conservation planning of Djin Block No. 9.     

Is a pixel worth 1000 words? Critical remote sensing and China's Belt and Road Initiative

As a novel means of researching China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), this article advances a critical remote sensing agenda that connects the view from above provided by satellite imagery with the grounded, qualitative methodologies more typical of political geography such as ethnographic fieldwork. Satellite imagery is widely used to produce empirics relating to the BRI, and the Chinese state is showing increasing interest in applying Earth observation data to governance. A more critical approach attentive to the politics of remote sensing, especially in light of China's emergence as a space and satellite power and its embrace of big data, is needed to more precisely reveal what changing pixels represent on the ground and expose the potential issues with data captured from high above the planet. This paper offers three theoretical and methodological objectives for critical remote sensing. First, I reflect on the geopolitics involved in the production and analysis of satellite imagery. Second, through analysis of night light imagery, which captures illuminated anthropogenic activities, I interrogate metanarratives of development. Third, I engage with qualitative methods by “ground-truthing” remote sensing with ethnographic observations along China's borders. I also seek to avoid the methodological nationalism often present in remote sensing research by situating these mixed-methods case studies at scales above and below the nation-state. As one of the largest development interventions in history materializes, pursuing critical remote sensing can create opportunities for social scientists to leverage quantitative and geospatial methods in support of more equitable and sustainable futures.     

Experiencing Ancient Buildings from a 3D GIS Perspective: a Case Drawn from the Swedish Pompeii Project

In recent times, archaeological documentation strategies have been considerably improved by the use of advanced 3D acquisition systems. Laser scanning, photogrammetry and computer vision techniques provide archaeologists with new opportunities to investigate and document the archaeological record. In spite of this, the amount of data collected and the geometrical complexity of the models resulting from such acquisition processes have always prevented their systematic integration into a geographic information systems (GIS) environment. Recent technological advances occurred in the visualization of 3D contents, led us to overcome the aforementioned limitations and set up a work pipeline in which was possible to put the 3D models not only in the context of data visualization but also in the frame of spatial analysis. The case study described is a part of the Swedish Pompeii Project, a research and fieldwork activity started in 2000 with the purpose of recording and investigating an entire Pompeian city block, Insula V 1. As an additional part of the research, a laser scanning acquisition campaign was conducted in the last few years. The resulting models were thus meant to be used to develop further research lines: Among these, a 3D GIS system was expected to be set up with the purpose to (i) collect in the same geo-referenced environment, different typologies of documentation gathered in the context of the Swedish Pompeii Project; (ii) inter-connect 3D models with the project website; (iii) use the third dimension as a further analytical field of investigation, in the form of spatial analysis and cognitive simulation.