Middle Bronze Age Settlement Patterns in the Western Galilee,Israel

Abstract

During the Middle Bronze Age (MB) II period (ca. 1750–1600 B.C.), Tel Kabri, located in the western Galilee, Israel, was the center of a thriving polity with economic and cultural connections to Egypt, Cyprus, and the Aegean. While Kabri and some neighboring sites have been partially excavated, the rise and fall of the polity has not been clearly understood. We present evidence from the Kabri Archaeological Project (KAP) to reconstruct shifting settlement patterns, demography, and aspects of trade in the Kabri hinterland from MB I to Late Bronze Age (LB) I. We argue that Kabri, in the northern part of the Acco plain, follows a different developmental trajectory than does the site of Acco and its hinterland in the southern part of the plain. Acco was urbanized early in MB I and developed a mature hinterland that persisted throughout MB II and into LB I. Kabri did not begin to bloom until late in the MB I period. Its rapid rise during MB II was accompanied by the abandonment of village sites far from the center of the polity and the fortification of nearby settlements. These efforts to consolidate power and to maintain the flow of goods into the center did not last long, and the polity of Kabri soon collapsed.     

考古学中的聚落形态

〔编者按 :SettlementPatternsinArchaeology (《考古学中的聚落形态》) ,原是作为CurrentTopicsinAnthropology之一种 (vol 5,no 2 4:1 - 2 6 Mass :Addison -WesleyPublishingCo )于 1 972年出版的。这篇长文和张光直先生主编的论文集SettlementArchaeology (《聚落考古学》 ,PaloAlto :NationalPress,1 968)等一道 ,奠定了先生在西方考古学中聚落考古理论方面的领导地位。论者认为 ,张光直先生关于早期人类聚落形态及其演化的研究 ,“使几代考古学者受益 ,其中不仅仅是那些对中国有兴趣的人。” (WolfgangSaxon ,“K C Chang ,69,anthropologistwhodocumentedChineseBronzeagesociety ,dies” ,NewYorkTimes,January 1 6,2 0 0 1 )也有学者指出 ,直到今天还是这样。他对 2 0世纪六七十年代考古学方法论的讨论做出过重要贡献” (RobertE Murowchicketal “Editor’sPreface”viii,JournalofEastAsianArchaeologyVol 1 ,1 - 4 1 999)。张光直先生 (1 93 1～ 2 0 0 1年 )生前对本刊非常关心 ,本刊也先后发表过先生多篇论文和采访录。这篇原本计划收入张先生文集的早期论文 ,为纪念张光直先生逝世一周年 ,经文集编者同意先行在这里发表 ,以表达本刊对这位伟大学者的悼念之情。〕     

Settlement Patterns of Logging Camps in the Great Lakes Region

Logging camps in the Great Lakes States experienced enormous changes between the 1840s and the 1940s. Research discloses an almost infinite variety in logging camp arrangements through time. The various buildings oj a camp sometimes stood side by side, other times they formed an “L” or “I” shape and still others were irregularly arranged. The camp buildings displayed increasing functional specialization through time. In the earliest camps a single building might serve for cooking, eating and sleeping. The later camps typically contained separate buildings to serve each of these functions besides a granary, blacksmith shop, van (store), saw filing shed, etc. Not surprisingly, the bunkhouse and the cookhouse or kitchen were always next to each other, as were the barn or stable and the blacksmith shop. Although the camps gradually increased in size during the pine-river drive era, the largest camps were associated with the hardwood-rail era. There was, however, great variation within any period. Whether a camp was that of a large company, small independent company or jobber largely determined the number of buildings it contained. The bunkhouse, kitchen-mess hall, stables or barns were always the largest structures of a camp. There is little chance that they would be confused with the office, blacksmith shop or any of the other structures commonly associated with logging camps. Structures at jobber camps were smaller than at corporate camps. The influence of different cultural groups, the increasing size of operations, the changing technology of logging and log transportation were among the factors that influenced settlement patterns at logging camps in the Great Lakes Stales.     

屈家岭文化的聚落形态与社会结构分析--以淅川黄楝树遗址为例

本文通过对淅川黄楝树屈家岭文化聚落形态进行深入分析,揭示了当时的某些社会结构特点.文章认为,黄楝树遗址的屈家岭文化建筑群在平面布局上既表现出很强的整体性,又允许各家房屋保持其相对的独立性.折射出当时的社会结构,一方面亲族组织具有很强的凝聚力和影响力,另一方面家庭私有制已经出现,家庭已成为基本生产和消费单位.     

The Muslim Settlement of Late Ottoman and Mandatory Palestine: Comparison with Jewish Settlement Patterns

In the late Ottoman and Mandatory periods, Palestine's rural landscape underwent a great transformation. This study examines how the Muslim population expanded beyond its traditional inhabitation in the highlands and settled the fluid inventory of marginal lands in the coastal plains and unpopulated valleys of Palestine. In settling these marginal landscapes their settlement dovetailed with Jewish settlement patterns. While most studies have emphasized the competitive aspect of this process, examining Zionist and Arab national claims, this research points to a different aspect of this new settlement—mainly how much the Jewish and Muslim settlement patterns mirrored one another and how they were part of similar physical processes and complemented one another. Relying on censuses, aerial photographs, and period maps, as well as other archival sources, this is the first systematic research to examine the full extent of new Muslim settlements in Palestine in the late Ottoman and Mandatory periods, and to draw parallels between this phenomenon and the settlement endeavors of the Zionists.     

People in Between: Conversion and Conservation of Forest Lands in Thailand

The analysis of ‘ambiguous lands’ and the people who inhabit them is most revealing for understanding environmental deterioration in Thailand. ‘Ambiguous lands’ are those which are legally owned by the state, but are used and cultivated by local people. Land with an ambiguous property status attracts many different actors: villagers hungry for unoccupied arable lands in the frontiers; government departments looking for new project sites; and conservation agencies searching for new areas to be protected. This article shows, first, how two types of ambiguous land — state‐owned but privately‐cultivated land, and communal lands — were created. It then examines how the Karen, one of the hill peoples living on the ambiguous lands, have been struggling to survive between the forces of capitalistic development and forest conservation. Using a detailed study of forest use and dependency conducted in two Karen villages, I argue that the state’s efforts to reduce the Karen’s forest dependency, or even to evict them from the forests, are not leading to the stated objective of conservation. Finally, I draw some wider implications with reference to James Scott’s thesis on state simplification.     

The Regular Component in Settlement Patterns as Shown on a Map

The author uses the concept of entropy from information theory to test the application of Christaller's hexagonal trade-area concept to actual settlement patterns. The entropy measure is used to separate the settlement pattern into its hexagonal and random components, just as incoming radio signals would be separated into the original outgoing signals and noise interference. Medvedkov derives formulas for two methods, one using the density of points within cells of a lattice, the other using the nearest-neighbor technique. The entropy approach is tested in seven actual situations, including three control situations, and shows the regular, or hexagonal, pattern to be the predominant component in five out of seven cases.     

Tracing Settlement Patterns and Channel Systems in Southern Mesopotamia Using Remote Sensing

Abstract

The integration of spatial datasets from historical satellite imagery, digital elevation models (DEMs), and past archaeological surveys provides new insights into the nature and remains of past landscape transformations. Using southern Mesopotamia as a case study, this article addresses, both quantitatively and qualitatively, long-held assumptions concerning the nature and relationship of settlement patterns and river channel systems in antiquity. GIS and image analysis are used to fill in gaps in the settlement record and propose a revised location for the Tigris River during most of antiquity. Given that only one-third of the central alluvial plain had been ground surveyed in southern Mesopotamia, how complete was our picture of landscape and settlement? How could gaps in settlement be interpreted? The present work in the area east of Baghdad suggests that archaeologists and historians have underestimated the nature and movements of the Tigris River. Satellite imagery can help reveal the location of the Tigris River prior to its settling into its modern course, shedding light on its potential role in the rise of early Mesopotamian agricultural societies. The work presented here proposes a methodology for unweaving and mapping preserved pieces of ancient landscapes, addressing larger issues of human modification of the landscape.     

The magdalenian in Western Central Europe: Settlement pattern and regionality

Magdalenian material from northern Switzerland, southwestern and southeastern Germany, the middle Rhine, and central Germany is examined for differences among these geographical areas. Several regional features, including a broad range of archaeological data, can be identified and indicate two regional groupings, a southwestern and a northeastern. The first includes sites from central Germany and the middle Rhine, while the second includes northern Switzerland and southwestern Germany. The southeastern German sites cannot be firmly placed within this pattern because of the insecure data base. The main differences are in prey species, hunting and settlement patterns, and some characteristics of the mobile art. The comparison does not allow a finer separation, although the two regional groups could probably be subdivided into smaller geographical units. Alternative explanations are discussed and further avenues of research are proposed.     

Settlement and land alienation in Western Australia: the shire of Denmark

The pattern of initial settlement in the Shire of Denmark in Western Australia is mapped using land registrations of the date of the first lease and first freehold grant. Settlement started near the main rivers before World War I and accelerated with Group Settlements of the 1920s. However, many Group settlers abandoned their land before 1940. Little development occurred until in-migration during the last 30 years. Local persistence of families was estimated from records of land tenure, rate books, electoral rolls, postal directories and interviews. The rate of persistence of families on each block varied considerably. Geographical expansion of holdings among successive generations of founding families reflects more general processes such as clone colonization in which, by mutual support and intra-family co-operation, families undertake short-distance migration to newly acquired—often abandoned—holdings. In this way, settlers have gradually created a continuously settled landscape in this once densely forested area of south-western Australia. Land alienation has occurred since 1900 in the study area of 217 surveyed lots, or ‘blocks’ which are, on average, 150 acres (70 hectares) in size. The geographical pattern of initial settlement comprised isolated sites, occupied in the wake of early lumbering, rather than a linear frontier.     

Settlement Patterns and Development of Social Complexity in the Yiluo Region,North China

Abstract

This international, collaborative, and interdisciplinary archaeological program examines changes in settlement patterns from the early Neolithic to the full development of states (ca. 6500–200 B.C.) in the Yiluo region of central north China. Full-coverage regional surveys are integrated with geoarchaeological investigations, ethnobotanical studies, and lithic analyses. The data are used to assess changes in population, environment, land use, agricultural production, and craft production, and to test theoretical propositions regarding the emergence and development of social complexity. Research results suggest a significant sociopolitical transformation taking place in the Yiluo basin during the Erlitou period, including the development of the first four-tiered settlement hierarchy, marked population nucleation, and economic integration between urban center and rural areas. These changes indicate the emergence of the earliest state in China.     

Patterns of War in the Andes from the Archaic to the Late Horizon: Insights from Settlement Patterns and Cranial Trauma

Over the pre-Columbian sequence, Andean warfare ranged greatly in intensity. This review combines published information on cranial trauma and settlement patterns, which often align and clarify each other, to make an initial assessment of how severely Andean populations were affected by war over time and space. The data speak to a number of major topics in the archaeology of warfare, such as the origin of war, contrasts in state militarism, and changes in the practice of war related to social organization. Although there is considerable regional variation, two large-scale “waves” of escalated conflict that are clearly supported by the cranial trauma and settlement pattern data occurred in the Final Formative (late Early Horizon, 400 BC–AD 100) and the Late Intermediate period (AD 1000–1400).     

西汉蟠螭纹铭文镜研究——汉字避讳、隶变刍议

一．概述 有四千年历史的中国铜镜兴盛于战国、繁荣于两汉、辉煌于隋唐。带地纹的蟠螭纹铭文镜是中国最早的铭文镜。估计其问世年代,起始在汉惠帝末年,终止于汉武帝早期,     

The Mountainair Lithic Scatters: Settlement Patterns and Significance Evaluation of Low Density Surface Sites

Abstract

The Mountainair Lithic Scatters represent a kind of site all too frequently ignored by archaeologists. This paper suggests that field survey involving small projects should anticipate that isolated surface scatters can, with certain limitations, be placed into a settlement-pattern framework.     

Geographical Patterns and Some Causes of Spatial Econoetic Variations in Perth,Western Australia

The 54 government senior high schools (SHS) in the Perth metropolitan area provide enough points for a spatial analysis in the search for indicators and correlations that may be used in relation to the results of the Australian scaling test (AST) and the tertiary entrance examination (TEE) in Western Australia. Spatial data are shown by maps, and statistical correlation pairings by graphs. The findings emphasize the great importance of socio-economic factors, such as parents' own education and employment, income and housing standard, as influences on the children's educational choices and results. The disadvantaged position of Aborigines in this respect is also stressed. This type of analysis may help in the planning of new school locations and in the choice of subjects to be offered by each school according to the suburb's socio-economic characteristics. From this analysis emerges a strong geographical pattern which separates a western prosperous belt from an underprivileged eastern belt. This separation has a long history and is due to a combination of landscape morphology, soil quality and drainage.     

西周石玦的生产形态:关于原料、技术与生产组织的探讨——周原遗址齐家制玦作坊个案研究之二

长期以来,技术被看作与生产组织密切相关的一个重要因素.因此,技术的复杂程度常常作为判定生产组织和社会复杂化程度的重要依据①.     

历史时期川西高原的民居形制及其成因

在文献考证和遗迹调查的基础上,对历史时期川西高原的民居形制进行了归纳和梳理,进而探寻影响川西民居演变的主要原因。研究认为:历史时期川西高原的民居可分为石室、板屋、土屋和帐房四类。在建筑材料、民居选址和民居形态上,川西高原的民居显著地受到自然地理环境的制约;出于生产生活的便利和在动荡社会环境中自保的需要,藏羌民居的防御形式和内部功能日渐趋同;不同社会文化力量,尤其表现为宗教信仰、思想观念等方面的差异,导致藏、羌、彝族民居逐渐渲染上个性的色彩,打上民族的烙印;最后,建筑形制自身的演变也会促使川西民居呈现出多样化的特点。