THE USE OF OXYGEN ISOTOPES IN SHEEP MOLARS TO INVESTIGATE PAST HERDING PRACTICES AT THE NEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT OF ÇATALHÖYÜK,CENTRAL ANATOLIA

This paper presents a pilot study designed to test the use of oxygen isotopes for investigating aspects of early herding practices in the Neolithic of western Asia, using the site of Çatalhöyük in central Anatolia as a case study. Time‐sequenced δ¹⁸O values in dental enamel of archaeological sheep are assessed for post‐depositional diagenetic effects and compared with seasonal δ¹⁸O meteoric water values in the region today. The evidence is used to indicate the environmental conditions in which individual sheep spent their first year, enabling management of breeding and birthing seasons, and movement to seasonal pastures, to be investigated.     

HUMAN MOBILITY AT THE EARLY NEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT OF VAIHINGEN,GERMANY: EVIDENCE FROM STRONTIUM ISOTOPE ANALYSIS*

As evidence concerning human mobility during the transition to agriculture in central Europe, we present the results of strontium isotope analysis of human skeletons from the Neolithic village of Vaihingen, Germany. We find significantly more ‘non‐local’⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr values from humans buried in a Neolithic ditch surrounding Vaihingen than from those buried within the settlement. These results fit with previous studies showing a correlation between burial circumstances and strontium isotope signatures from LBK cemeteries of southwestern Germany ( Price et al. 2001 ; Bentley et al. 2002 ). A pilot study of Neolithic animal teeth from Vaihingen suggests that either ‘local’⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr signatures were more variable than the analysed human bones suggest, or that these domestic animals themselves were mobile, perhaps ranged by mobile pastoralists.     

MOLECULAR AND ISOTOPIC DEMONSTRATION OF THE PROCESSING OF AQUATIC PRODUCTS IN NORTHERN EUROPEAN PREHISTORIC POTTERY*

A number of charred surface residues, adhering to ceramic containers, were obtained from various coastal and inland sites in north‐west Europe dating from the sixth to the fourth millennium cal bc . In order to investigate the use of these vessels and in particular to identify any marine products, the residues were subjected to carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis. Variation in carbon isotope ratios between different samples indicated that some vessels may have been used to process marine products. This analysis was corroborated by specific identification of aquatic products following structural and isotopic characterization of lipids extracted from selected samples.     

TRACING THE RESOURCES OF IRON WORKING AT ANCIENT SAGALASSOS (SOUTH‐WEST TURKEY): A COMBINED LEAD AND STRONTIUM ISOTOPE STUDY ON IRON ARTEFACTS AND ORES*

Lead and strontium isotope analyses were performed by thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) on Roman to Byzantine iron artefacts and iron ores from the territory of ancient Sagalassos (south‐west Turkey), to evaluate Pb and Sr isotopes for provenance determination of ores for local iron production. It can be demonstrated that for early Roman artefacts and hematite iron ore processed in early Roman times from Sagalassos proper, as well as for magnetite placer sands and early Byzantine raw iron from the territory of the city, Sr isotopes are much less ambiguous than Pb isotopes in providing clearly coherent signatures for ore and related iron objects. Late Roman iron objects were produced from iron ores that as yet remain unidentified. Early Byzantine iron artefacts display more scatter in both their Pb and Sr isotope signatures, indicating that many different ore sources may have been used. Our study demonstrates that iron objects can be precisely analysed for their Sr isotopic composition, which, compared to Pb isotopes, appears to be a much more powerful tool for distinguishing between chronological groups and determining the provenance of raw materials.     

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NEOLITHIC SITES AND THE RIVERS IN XI’AN (SHAANXI PROVINCE,CHINA)*

Based on analyses of the ecological environments of the Neolithic sites along the Chan and Ba Rivers in the Xi’an area (Shaanxi Province, China), it was found that the characteristic factors of the sites had a very close relationship with the nearby river. The characteristic factors of Neolithic sites have been analysed and defined as mathematical parameters by statistical methods. A mathematical model of the human–land relationship between Neolithic sites and rivers has been established using the stepwise regression procedure REGRESS in SPSS^®. The mathematical model is Y = 496.153 – 4.833X₁ + 113.692X3 + 725.097X₅ – 27.683X₃X₄. It shows that the distance (Y) from a site to a river has a marked relationship with the site area (X₁), the river flux (X₃), the site location (X₅) and river ratio drop (X₄). The model shows that the relationship between the sites and the river is in accordance with the conclusions of archaeological research. The mathematical model not only offers theoretical guidance for the archaeological excavation of Neolithic sites in Xi’an, but also contributes to the archaeological environmental research of Xi’an Neolithic sites.      

‘THERE'S NO PLACE LIKE HOME’—NO ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR MOBILITY AT THE EARLY BRONZE AGE CEMETERY OF SINGEN,GERMANY

The Early Bronze Age necropolis of Singen (Hohentwiel), located near Lake Constance, represents a population from a period of technological transition in southwestern Germany. The site contains several graves with metal artefacts that originated in other parts of Central and Western Europe, and therefore these could be interpreted as being the graves of non‐local individuals. The purpose of this study was to investigate this possibility through the application of isotopic analysis. The ratios of strontium and oxygen isotopes in human enamel reflect the geological origin of food and drinking water consumed during enamel formation in early life stages. Additionally, the ratio of sulphur isotopes from bone collagen reflects the origin of foods consumed during the last 10–20 years of life of an adult individual. We used these three isotope systems to attempt to identify local and non‐local individuals at the site. We found that the isotope ratios of Sr, O and S of the humans were relatively homogeneous and generally correspond to the isotope signature of the local geology, climate and environment. We conclude that the sampled population is of local origin and does not show patterns of individual mobility, even though there is evidence for long‐distance trade and exchange of the metal artefacts at this site.     

AN 8500‐YEAR‐OLD BLADDER STONE FROM UZZO CAVE (TRAPANI): FOURIER TRANSFORM–INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY ANALYSIS*

A calcium carbonate (calcite) bladder calculus was found in the pelvis of an adult female buried in a Mesolithic cave‐tomb on the coast of Sicily; it was dated by ¹⁴ C to around 6500 bc . Its chemical composition, which was not known before, was determined by means of Fourier transform–infared microspectroscopy (FT–IR–M) using the high‐pressure diamond cell, a device that makes it possible to analyse a small amount of the sample (1–2 µg). In this way, the analysis of all the laminations of the calculus was performed without destroying the sample. Although calcite was the main component, carbonate apatite was also detected in the nucleus and in a more external layer.     

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE COLORATION AND THE FIRING TECHNOLOGY USED TO PRODUCE SUSA GLAZED CERAMICS OF THE END OF THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD*

Ancient decorated potteries from Susa (Mesopotamia) dating from 4200 to 3700 bc , were studied in order to determine the origin and the nature of the raw materials used, and to identify the technological processes applied to make the ceramic bodies and their decorations. Bulk compositions were determined by particle induced X‐ray emission (PIXE), while the microstructure and the mineralogical phases were studied using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X‐ray analyses (EDX) and X‐ray powder diffraction (XRD). The results showed that the raw materials used to elaborate these potteries were similar for all the ceramic bodies (carbonates and iron and magnesium‐rich clays containing sand), and for all the decorations (iron oxides, silica, potassic and alumina sources). The variations of coloration of the ceramics and of their decorations were due to different firing temperatures. The ranges of firing temperatures used by potters were evaluated on the basis of mineral stability domains.     

CHILDHOOD DIET: A CLOSER EXAMINATION OF THE EVIDENCE FROM DENTAL TISSUES USING STABLE ISOTOPE ANALYSIS OF INCREMENTAL HUMAN DENTINE*

Incremental dentine analysis utilizes tissue that does not remodel and that permits comparison, at the same age, of those who survived infancy with those who did not at high temporal resolution. Here, we present a pilot study of teeth from a 19th‐century cemetery in London, comparing the merits of two methods of obtaining dentine increments for subsequent isotope determination. Covariation in δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values suggests that even small variations have a physiological basis. We show that high‐resolution intra‐dentine isotope profiles can pinpoint short‐duration events such as dietary change or nutritional deprivation in the juvenile years of life.     

EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE FOR THE PROCESSING OF MARINE ANIMAL PRODUCTS AND OTHER COMMODITIES CONTAINING POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS IN POTTERY VESSELS*

ω‐(o‐Alkylphenyl)alkanoic acids are known to form in vitro from triunsaturated fatty acids following protracted heating. These compounds have recently been identified in absorbed lipid extracts obtained from archaeological pottery vessels, providing a potentially valuable new class of indicator for the processing of commodities, such as marine oils, which contain high abundances of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Experiments were conducted to assess whether ω‐(o‐alkylphenyl)alkanoic acids form when pure compounds and complex triacylglycerol mixtures are heated with a fired clay. The results demonstrate that ω‐(o‐alkylphenyl)alkanoic acids are only produced following heating of unsaturated fatty acids (tri‐, di‐ and monounsaturated species) or complex unsaturated fatty acyl lipids at around 270°C. Heating saturated fatty acyl lipids does not yield ω‐(o‐alkylphenyl)alkanoic acids. Thus, when searching for evidence for the processing of marine derived animal fats in archaeological pottery vessels, it is essential that: ω‐(o‐alkylphenyl)alkanoic acids of carbon length C₁₈ and C₂₀ should be present, ideally with C₂₂ also detectable (if only in trace abundances), together with at least one of the three isoprenoid fatty acids (phytanic, pristanic or 4,8,12‐tetramethyltridecanoic acid).     

CLAY RESOURCES AND TECHNICAL CHOICES FOR NEOLITHIC POTTERY (CHALAIN,JURA, FRANCE): CHEMICAL,MINERALOGICAL AND GRAIN‐SIZE ANALYSES*

Many authors have considered pottery manufacturing constraints and sociocultural elements as factors in change in past civilizations over time. The main issue of this research is to better understand the reasons for changes, or choices, in pottery raw materials. The very precise and detailed stratigraphy and cultural succession of occupations is based on dendrochronological data from the lake‐dwelling sites of Chalain (Jura, France). Petrographic, palaeontological and chemical analyses were used to determine the nature and origins of the raw materials used by the Neolithic potters. Stratigraphy and dendrochronological data were used to reconstruct in detail the evolution dynamics of fabric changes. Several raw material sources were identified for many of the pottery groups. Each of them was sampled for qualitative experimental tests of pottery forming. The experimental results show a high variability between the sediments tested. This variability was quantitatively estimated by XRF, XRD, the Rietveld method, calcium carbonate quantification and laser grain‐size analyses of matrices, indirect measures of plasticity. These analytical results allow a better understanding of the differences observed in the experimental tests. On the basis of these experimental and analytical results, changing parameters such as pottery manufacturing constraints, mineralogical characteristics of raw materials and sociocultural factors are considered. In conclusion, all the social and technical parameters, in each archaeological context, must be taken into account for a better understanding of the changes occurring throughout the chronological sequence.     

PETROGRAPHIC AND GEOCHEMICAL EVIDENCE FOR LONG‐STANDING SUPPLY OF RAW MATERIALS IN NEOLITHIC POTTERY (MENDANDIA SITE,SPAIN)

Pottery from the Neolithic Mendandia site has been studied. The radiocarbon dating of the site corresponds to a range of dates from 7488–7546 cal bc to 5283–5437 cal bc : the first occurrence of pottery is dated at 5968–6040 cal bc for the lower level III, and up to 5386–5560 cal bc for level II. The antiquity of the potsherds places them within the oldest pottery production sequences in the Iberian Peninsula, which adds to the interest of this study. Ten potsherds from level II and five from level III are analysed for their petrographic and chemical characterization. The petrographic data show two different methods of raw materials manufacture—intentionally tempered pottery (ITP), using calcite and/or limestone and grog, and naturally or non‐intentionally tempered pottery (NTP). According to the matrix paste features, on the basis of the amount, shape, and average or size range of the mineral inclusions, clayed (type A) and sandy (type B) paste types were established and related to two different source areas. The chemical features also indicate two raw material sources and are in agreement with the petrographic paste types. The absence of significant chemical and mineralogical differences between the pottery from levels II and III suggests two contrasting areas for raw materials supply that lasted for at least 600 years.     

IDENTIFICATION,PROCESSING AND USE OF RED PIGMENTS (HEMATITE AND CINNABAR) IN THE VALENCIAN EARLY NEOLITHIC (SPAIN)

The results of the first elemental and structural physicochemical analyses (SEM–EDX, TXRF, XRD, FTIR, GC and EDXRF) of Early Neolithic red pigment samples from the region of Valencia confirm one of the earliest uses of cinnabar (HgS) in Spain (5300 to 5000 cal bc ). They also inform on the storage of massive quantities of hematite and the development of specific technologies of hematite‐based paint production and use. The samples were recovered at the three most significant Early Neolithic sites of the Mediterranean coast of Spain: Cova de l'Or (Beniarrés, Alacant), Cova de la Sarsa (Bocairent, Valencia) and Cova Fosca (Vall d'Ebo, Valencia), which together have provided the most important European collection of Cardial ceramic ware (chronoculturally diagnostic of the Early Neolithic).     

NEUTRON ACTIVATION PATTERNING OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIALS AT THE NATIONAL CENTER FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH ‘DEMOKRITOS’: THE CASE OF BLACK‐ON‐RED NEOLITHIC POTTERY FROM MACEDONIA,GREECE

A short history of the application of NAA in the characterization of archaeological materials at the National Center for Scientific Research ‘Demokritos’, Athens, is presented. NAA was first applied in archaeology in 1974 at the Radioanalytical Laboratory, and since 1989 has been one of the primary analytical techniques of the ‘Demokritos’ archaeometry programme. A case study is also presented, concerning chemical patterning of the black‐on‐red Neolithic pottery class from Macedonia. Four chemical groups were identified, each corresponding to a different area of production. It is shown that this standardized concept of pottery technology and style was spread out within at least eastern Macedonia.     

MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC (DIS)CONTINUITIES IN THE DANUBE GORGES: NEW AMS DATES FROM PADINA AND HAJDUČKA VODENICA (SERBIA)

Summary.   In this paper we present 17 new AMS dates from the Mesolithic–Early Neolithic sites of Padina and Hajdućka Vodenica and discuss the continuity and nature of occupation at them in the context of the Mesolithic–Neolithic transformations in the Danube Gorges region (north-central Balkans), c.10000–5500 Cal BC. The dates indicate long occupation sequences and help refine the stratigraphies of the two sites. They, also enable us to date architectural features, burial positions and bone/antler tools, and to further our understanding of the impact of the noted aquatic reservoir effect on radiocarbon dating of human and dog remains from this region. Finally, these dates suggest continuity of occupation at sites other than Lepenski Vir in the Danube Gorges at the time of the Mesolithic–Neolithic transition, c.6300–5950 Cal BC.     

SHELL FRAGMENTATION AS A TOOL FOR QUANTIFICATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF TAPHONOMIC PROCESSES IN ARCHAEOMALACOLOGICAL ANALYSIS: THE CASE OF THE CANTABRIAN REGION (NORTHERN SPAIN)

This paper presents a quantification method for archaeological molluscs using fragmentation categories. By employing the data from nine prehistoric sites (13 000 to 5000 bp ; 15 700 to 5700 cal bp ) in Cantabrian Spain (northern Spain), it has been shown that traditional methods, based on one or two anatomical elements, systematically produce a loss in the minimum number of individuals (MNI) that is sometimes significant. This paper also proposes using fragmentation categories in the calculation of the fragmentation index. In addition, based on these indices, a reflection is made on the difficulty involved in associating the amount of fragmentation of the shells with the taphonomic processes that have occurred at the archaeological sites, especially in discerning which agents have caused the fragmentation.     

RADIOCARBON DATING OF MESOLITHIC OPEN‐AIR SITES IN THE COVERSAND AREA OF THE NORTH‐WEST EUROPEAN PLAIN: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS

This paper discusses the problems with sampling materials and sampled contexts in the framework of radiocarbon dating of Mesolithic sites situated in generally dry, acid and bioturbated coversand deposits within north‐western Europe. The case studies presented all relate to the coversand regions of northern Belgium and the Netherlands, two areas for which very large sets of radiocarbon dates performed on different organic components are currently available. The study points out that charred hazelnut shells from surface hearths and charcoal from hearth pits guarantee the most secure dating results, while the dating of calcined bones and food crusts from Final Mesolithic pottery so far remains problematic.     

THE PROVENANCE OF OBSIDIAN ARTEFACTS FROM THE WĀDĪ ATH‐THAYYILAH 3 NEOLITHIC SITE (EASTERN YEMEN PLATEAU) BY LA–ICP–MS

The geological sources of obsidian in the Red Sea region provide the raw material used for the production of obsidian artefacts found in prehistoric sites on both sides of the Red Sea, as far afield as Egypt, the Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia. This paper presents the chemical characterization of five obsidian geological samples and 20 prehistoric artefacts from a systematically excavated Neolithic settlement in highland Yemen. The major element concentrations were determined by SEM–EDS analysis and the trace element concentrations were analysed by the LA–ICP–MS method, an almost non‐destructive technique capable of chemically characterizing the volcanic glass. A comparison of archaeological and geological determinations allows the provenance of the obsidian used for the Neolithic artefacts to be traced to definite sources in the volcanic district of the central Yemen Plateau.     

THE BLUE ENAMELS IN THE BAROQUE DECORATIONS OF THE CHURCHES OF PALERMO,SICILY: FE2+‐COLOURED GLASSES FROM LIME KILNS*

Deep blue glasses coloured by octahedral Fe²⁺ cations are often reported as textbook examples of blue pigmentation. However, despite the possibility of laboratory synthesis under reducing conditions, to date there are no well‐reported occurrences of their production and use in the past. A thorough historical, ethnographic, mineralogical, and chemico‐physical investigation of the ‘smaltini di calcara’ from several baroque churches in Palermo, Sicily, has revealed that the blue enamels widely used for altar decorations in the 17th and 18th centuries are actually a unique case of ancient blue glasses pigmented by divalent iron cations in distorted octahedral coordination. This mixed‐alkali glass was accidentally produced under severely reducing conditions in the local kilns during production of lime.