早期来华葡人与中葡贸易——由一组1552年铭青花玉壶春瓶谈起

15世纪以来,欧洲进入大航海时代,葡萄牙成为首个开始探索东方的欧洲国家。1514年,一路东进的葡萄牙人终于到达中国沿海,但直到1553年葡萄牙人入居澳门,次年中葡协议广州对葡开放,中葡贸易才终趋稳定。广州对葡开放及澳门开埠之后,中葡贸易得以迅速发展并非偶然,而是早期葡萄牙人在中国沿海积极经营的结果。然而,由于早期中葡外交关系的波折起伏,很难在中葡文献中捕捉到他们活动的细节,近年来随着作为此时期实物见证的贸易瓷器(片)被不断发现和披露,提供许多重要线索之外,更成为聚合此时期琐碎历史信息的关键。本文即旨在以一组葡商于1552年订制的青花玉壶春瓶为研究个案,探讨早期在华葡萄牙人的活动细节及其对中葡贸易发展的巨大作用。     

葡萄牙旧圣克拉拉修道院遗址出土十六世纪中国瓷器

根据文献记载,葡萄牙人于1514年首次到达中国,并由此开启中葡海上贸易。之后,由于中葡外交关系一度交恶,未得官方许可的葡商游走于中国海域的各个离岛,与沿海商人进行走私贸易。直到1553年,葡萄牙人占据澳门,并逐渐将其发展成为对中国及亚洲贸易的主要据点,中葡贸易规模迅速发展,进入了一个全新的阶段。在这一背景下,十六世纪中后期,大量中国瓷器被运往葡萄牙市场,进入当地王室贵族及宗教团体的日常器用中,然而受葡萄牙本地考古材料披露的有限性及发表语言的限制,我们对于这一时期中葡贸易瓷器具体面貌的认知仍较为模糊。因此,本文将对葡萄牙中部一处修道院遗址出土的十六世纪中后期中国瓷器进行集中介绍,以补充我们对于此时期中葡贸易瓷器主要品类及风格的认知。     

明朝中国海商与澳门开埠

澳门开埠在中国历史乃至世界近代贸易全球化的进程中,均称得上是一重大事件。葡萄牙人占领马六甲后,很快与活跃于南海的中国海商合作,先后在广东、福建、浙江沿海进行走私贸易。中葡商人形成了利益共同体,对明朝的贸易体制与东南沿海社会秩序造成冲击。在闽浙地区遭受明朝政府清剿后,中葡商人重返广东沿海,向广东官府疏通后,得以入居澳门进行定点贸易。当时广东海防的主要矛盾是明朝朝贡贸易体制与中、葡商人之利益冲突,澳门开埠乃为纾解这一矛盾而建立的缓冲平台。     

1902年中葡交涉述论

1902年中葡交涉过程中,葡方先后提出扩大澳门界址、在澳门及周围各岛范围内任建工程并协助缉私、修造广澳铁路等项要求,并以承认中外新定税则和协助清政府在澳门征税缉私作为交换条件.中方对葡方企图扩大统治区域等严重侵害中国领土主权的要求给以坚决抵制,使葡方的主要目标不能实现;但为了取得葡方承认新定税则和协助中方征税缉私的目的,在修造广澳铁路问题上对葡方做出一定让步.     

葡葡牙强占澳门与清政府拒绝批准中葡《和好贸易条约》

英国发动的鸦片战争,是澳门历史的重大转折点。从１６世纪下半期开始,葡萄牙人就以僦居者的身份,在中国领土澳门居住、贸易。１９世纪中叶,英国发动鸦片战争,逼迫清政府割让香港。葡萄牙政府妄图步英国的后尘,要求把澳门划归其所有。当这一侵略要求被拒绝之后,它便采用蛮横的手段,擅自宣布澳门为自由港,驱逐澳门的中国官吏,封闭澳门的中国海关,镇压澳门人民的反抗,强占澳门,实行殖民统治。为了使占领澳门合法化,也为了获得与英、美、法等国一样的通商特权,葡萄牙在法国的帮助下,与清政府进行立约谈判,草签了《和好贸易条约》。清政府发现条约中有损害中国领土主权的条款,不予批准,并提出修改后互换的意见。中葡双方围绕互换条约问题展开了长期的交涉,葡葡牙企图利用互换条约使其侵占澳门合法化,清政府则想通过换约谈判收回澳门主权,双方目的相反,无法取得一致,中葡《和好贸易条约》终于成为一个未经清政府批准、未经中葡双方互换、没有法律效力的条约。     

盛宣怀与中葡广澳铁路合同谈判中的选商

1902年10月中葡互换关于中葡铁路公司建筑广澳铁路照会,葡萄牙政府不满意这样的结果,不同意清政府在澳门设立海关分关,1903年10月再次派白朗谷为全权大臣,与清政府重新进行中葡商约谈判,并签订以商办为宗旨、以均股平权为核心内容的广澳铁路合同。铁路合同签订的前提是中葡双方派出各自的商董参与谈判,葡方较早派出商董伯多禄,但中方商董的选定有一个复杂的过程。盛宣怀先后在澳门华商、香港华商中物色合适人选,颇费周折,最后选定粤商林德远参与合同谈判。盛宣怀选商困难的原因在于：确有实力之华商难得,且身份复杂,他们顾虑在中葡合办铁路的机制中利权得不到应有保护,“虑葡商专权”是当时华商的基本心态。盛宣怀等人第一次尝试在一条铁路线的建设和管理过程中真正建立起商办体制和中外商民合办机制并非易事,近代铁路建设的曲折性和复杂性由此而得到充分体现。     

正嘉之际明朝对葡外交之确定——以丘道隆《请却佛郎机贡献疏》为中心

<正>嘉之际是中葡两国实质交往的第一重要阶段,这期间葡使来华,谋求建立与中国的通商贸易关系。面对素未闻知的全新外交对象,明朝亦开始了对葡外交的探索过程。在此过程中,奏呈《请却佛郎机贡献疏》的丘道隆是一位举足轻重的关键人物。丘道隆从道义原则和现实利害两个方面建议拒绝葡萄牙人的"封贡"请求,勒令葡归还业已侵占的马六甲疆土,从而为明朝处理早期中葡关系提供了可资参照的决策思路。此后出台的明朝对葡政策,大体依循了丘道隆的建议,是对丘道隆奏疏的最终落实。     

林则徐澳门巡阅记

为行使中国政府主权,林钦差巡阅“天朝疆土”澳门林则徐是我国伟大的爱国者和民族英雄,也是我国开眼看世界的第一人。160年前（即1839年）9月3日亲自巡阅澳门,不仅在中国近代史上有重大意义,而且也是澳门历史以及中葡关系史上的一件大事。澳门自古以来就是中国的领土。1553—1557年间,葡萄牙人据澳门,此后又通过向明朝政府交纳地租和税饷,把澳门变成他们的居留地。1685年,清政府在广州设粤海关以后,允许来粤贸易的西方各国商人,在贸易季节以我们时间到澳门暂住,澳门又逐渐成为葡、亚、荷、英、法、美等西方各国商人的共同居留地…     

葡萄牙与《中葡和好贸易条约》的签订

《中葡和好贸易条约》是近代以来中葡两国草签的一个重要条约,葡萄牙政府在谈判过程中曾采用各种手段,以期从法律上确认对澳门的占领,清朝谈判官员的昏聩,使葡萄牙人几乎实现了他们在几个世纪里梦寐以求的目的。只是清政府在换约前提出修改条约的主张,才使其努力功亏一篑。本文依据中葡双方的档案史料,对葡萄牙殖民主义者在这次修约交涉中企图侵占澳门的险恶用心和卑劣手法做一概括说明。     

明代中葡关系与澳门之地位

明代中葡关系与澳门之地位朱亚非自从１５世纪地理大发现以后,西方殖民者开始了对亚洲的入侵。明朝正德年间,葡萄牙殖民者占领了满刺加,成为第一个在亚州夺取殖民地的西方国家．葡人控制满刺加不久,就把目标对准了垂涎已久的中国。他们采用各种手段力图敲开明政府因历...     

Telling small stories: spaces of knowledge and the practice of geography

This article examines how the practice of learning geography, and the arenas in which knowledge-making takes place, can be usefully positioned within changing histories of the discipline. It contends that networks of action – understood through the intersection of social sites, subjects and sources – present a conceptual framework and narrative focus for the re-consideration of specific episodes from geography's past. The interventions made here are informed and illustrated by a 'small story' about the doing of geography. Based on different personal accounts, the story revives a series of events, encounters, dialogues and images dating back to the winter of 1951 at Glenmore Lodge, Scotland. This educational institution in the Cairngorm mountains offered children from urban areas the opportunity to learn field studies and the skills of 'outdoor citizenship'. Initially, the focus falls on Margaret Jack, a 14-year-old field-course participant. Her learning experiences are traced through personal letters, a diary and a field journal dating from that time, and her recent recollections of this event. Margaret's account dovetails with the story of her field studies instructor, Robin Murray. Robin's role is traced through his learning experiences as a geography undergraduate at Aberdeen University, and the recent recollections of Catriona Murray, his wife.     

Das Wissen der Schulden. Recht,Kulturtechnik und Alltagserfahrung im liberalen Kapitalismus

The Knowledge of Debt: Law, Media Technique, and Everyday Experience in Liberal Capitalism. Performing an object such as ‘the economy’ hinges on practices of formatting knowledge. The article proposes to look at such instituting moments in connection with social conflicts over the legitimate rules of exchange. This is exemplified by way of recounting the story of the codification of Swiss bankruptcy law in 1889. In order to homogenize the legal procedures of debt collection and bankruptcy, two subject categories were instituted: ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. These different categories were thought to account for the diverging temporalities and spaces of credit exchange in everyday economic life. The introduction of the commercial register, a media-technical apparatus, enabled a formal distinction between ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. However, this boundary was contested and proved to be porose.     

Two radiocarbon dates for freshwater shells from hierakonpolis: Archaeological and geological interpretations

Shells of two species of freshwater bivalve (Unio willcocksi Bullen Newton and Etheria elliptica Lamarck) from the predynastic Gerzean (Nagada II) Decorated Tomb at Hierakonpolis, Egypt have given dates of 5000±90 bp for the tomb, and 12,900±120 bp for an episode of Nile terrace accumulation (correlated here with the Sahaba-Darau aggradation event). The archaeological and geological significance of these results is discussed, together with an outline of problems associated with radiocarbon dating of shell. Comparisons are made with the few other radiocarbon dates available for the Predynastic period in Egypt and possible reasons for the presence of shells in the tomb are considered.     

Some chronological implications of a fossil molluscan assemblage from a neolithic site at Brook,Kent, England

The later post-glacial history of a valley in the chalk escarpment near Brook, Kent, is described, based on molluscan stratigraphy, archaeological evidence and radio-carbon dating. Differences in size and colour banding, respectively, of fossil and living representatives of two species of land snails, Pomatias elegans (Müller) and Cepaea nemoralis (L.), are correlated with climatic change during the post-glacial period. The problems of the use of fossil shells of these species as samples for radiocarbon dating are discussed.     

China's Dynamic Industrial Sector: The Internet Industry

A Singapore-based economic geographer explores and analyzes the spatially uneven evolution of the Internet industry in China, arguing that the country's immense regional disparity in the provision of Internet services is best explained by the interplay of place- and path-dependence. The author demonstrates how the highly uneven regional endowments in relevant industrial and entrepreneurial resources have led to the substantial and persistent regional imbalance within China's emerging "new economy." His initial survey of the country's 100 leading Internet content providers (firms), identified from a listing of ca. 11,700 commercial websites, is selectively augmented to reflect an increase of over 70 million Internet users in 2007, reaching a total of 253 million in June 2008, and thus overtaking the United States as the world's largest Internet market. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: L10, L86, O30. 6 figures, 1 table, 53 references.     

The 1911 International Exposition in Rome: architecture, archaeology, and national identity

This paper discusses the 1911 International Exposition in Rome and illustrates how this patriotic celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the Italian Sate utilized symbolic landscapes of architecture and archaeology to promote nationalist sentiments of italianità and romanità centered on the young capital of Rome. Through modern art exhibitions at the Valle Giulia, scientific conferences at the Castel Sant’Angelo, archaeological exhibits on the Roman Empire in the Baths of Diocletian, and regional Italian pavilions in the Piazza d’Armi, exposition officials offered a complex representation of Italian national identity that was modern yet ancient, cosmopolitan yet bucolic, European yet regional, and imperial yet developing.     

The Rise and Fall of Alexander the Great – The Need for Medical Analysis: Reply to Commentaries

Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C. from an unknown cause. By elucidating the nature of his death, we can better interpret various aspects of Alexandrian history. Alexander’s death may have ensued from the sequelae of a congenital scoliotic syndrome. It would therefore be of significance to note that one of the greatest leaders in history who conquered much of the then known world may have been suffering from a physical disability.     

Hospital Drama: Visual Theatres of the Medical Rendezvous from Asylum to Hospital with Reference to Specific Works by Anna Furse

Abstract

This paper is informed by Furse’s practice as a theatre maker in two fields of output that are connected by two factors: first, the presence of the woman patient — hysteric/subfertile respectively — within the clinical gaze; second, the significance of the womb to each pathology. In the treatment of each (explored in Furse’s theatre), lens based technologies play their part, whilst the cultural and medical can be seen to have overlapped to produce specific meaning with regard to Her body and its spectacularity. The article presents an overview of some of the key issues in precisely how the woman’s body becomes spectacular within this prosthetic medical gaze and how the medical — and theatrically designed spaces to represent these — become meaningful and potent proxemics that in turn inform medical/ theatrical spectatorship. Overarching nineteenth-century protocols at the Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris (where Furse’s Augustine (Big Hysteria) is set) to contemporary imaging technologies used in the treatment of subfertility with Assisted Reproduction Technologies (the topic of her Art of A.R.T. projects), it examines the way in which photography develops through cinema to X-Ray, ultrasound and then 3D/4D ultrasound to ‘capture’ the woman’s body in ways by which she becomes muted and exposed. These occular technologies that extend the gaze, first to an exterior subject and then, eventually, traversing the flesh without knife, lend specific performativity to the ‘patient’ women, within the context of hysterias and reproductive impairments respectively. Finally, issues of suspension of disbelief are addressed. The spectator’s faith in the screen-based image of Her spectacular body is interrupted in Furse’s work, which is also keenly interested in the effect of such imagery on the woman’s sense of Self. The historical and cultural leaps in this article argue that there is indeed a trajectory through the history of medical imaging since the first application of photography to anatomy to the more advanced scoping technologies of medical imaging today, and that in each era, the production of these images remain fraught with cultural implications.     

The Death of Alexander the Great – A Spinal Twist of Fate

Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C. from an unknown cause. Physical depictions of this historical figure reveal the likelihood of a cervical scoliotic deformity. This is substantiated with the medical history and is correlated with his untimely death. For the first time, it is concluded that Alexander’s death may have ensued from the sequelae of a congenital scoliotic syndrome.