Pineal gland,perennial puzzle

Abstract

Since antiquity this tiny intracranial appendicular organ has aroused sexual connotations and denials. Controversial and enigmatic, it played a significant part in the development of endocrinology and even neurosurgery. What was its histology, what was its role as a gland so intimately attached to the brain? What did comparative anatomists make of it in the light of its function as a ‘third eye?’ Mysticism and the famous Cartesian apothegm placed it in the center of Eastern and Western approaches to the mind‐body problem and to mental disorders. The latter were connected with the common calcifications, so helpful in the radiological diagnosis of brain shifts due to mass lesions. Undefeated, even spurred by continuing uncertainties, researchers keep looking into this ‘photo‐neuro‐endocrine transducer.’     

Marinus of Tyre's place in the Columbus concepts

Summary

Thomas Jefferys (died 1771) was one of the most significant London mapsellers of the mid‐eighteenth century. He enjoyed an international reputation and apparent prosperity as a publisher of American and European maps during the Seven Years War. Yet in 1766 he became bankrupt. The paper offers an interpretation of Jefferys’ bankruptcy in the light of his business activities. After reconstructing the main phases of his career, the conclusion is reached that the causes of bankruptcy only operated in the period after 1765, when he became involved in the production of a series of English county maps based on original field survey. Hitherto, his maps had been compiled from inexpensive secondary sources; the field surveys involved a new set of costs which led to his failure.

The bankruptcy explains an otherwise puzzling change of ownership in some of his maps after 1765—especially the acquisition by Robert Sayer of a substantial share in his enterprises. These events may have wider implications in the history of eighteenth‐century cartography. Many map‐publishers were under‐capitalized and had to survive on low profit margins. These, in turn, may have retarded cartographical progress; the conclusion reached is that plagiarism was frequently an economic necessity for many mapsellers.     

Yahweh's divorce in Hosea 2 — Who is that woman?

Abstract

The proposal that Yahweh's wife being divorced in Hos 2 is Asherah fails all tests that one puts to it. The monotheistic prophet would not have dignified the Canaanite Goddess with such a recognition. Nor would the Israelites have claimed the Canaanite mother of the Gods as their own mother. The city of Samaria is the only bride/divorcee around. (Israel, being masculine, is son m not wife — of Yahweh). Hosea does not create the idea of the city as woman; the usage is an ancient West‐Semitic way of speaking of cities. Hosea is simply one of the first Israelite prophets to use the Canaanite imagery for cities, but his utterance was preserved. He probably is distinctive as the first to have Yahweh divorce his city‐wife. Thus, Hosea in Chap 2 proclaims the future demise of Samaria.     

Crossing disciplinary boundaries: On Gutorm Gjessing's archaeology and his conversion to ethnography

Gutorm Gjessing was one of the most influential investigators in Norwegian archaeology. He is particularly known for his monumental works on the Arctic Stone Age, which proposed an alternative to south‐north diffusionism. In 1947 Gjessing suddenly left archaeology in favour of ethnography at the Oslo Ethnographic Museum, which also led his carrier in a downhill direction. This article is partly biographical and partly analytical and claims that Gjessing's archaelogical works and theories in the 1930s ‐ 40s were only marginally non‐conformist, since they largely reflected current viewpoints in European culture‐historical archaeology. Gjessing's view of culture is located in culture‐historical archaeology and American cultural anthropology and it is compared with the anthropology of the “British School”. Also analyzed is how Gjessing in some respects placed himself on the fringe of the establishment. It is not pretended to give any definite answers, rather it is focused upon questions which can be raised and provides a more nuanced picture of” the mythology which has surrounded Gutorm Gjessing, both as archaeologist and anthropologist.     

Experimental and clinical studies of localisation before flourens

Abstract

Experimental studies in the localisation of brain function did not begin with Flourens, nor did clinical studies with the phrenologists or physicians like Auburtin, Bouillaud, or Dax, shortly afterward. Although the pre‐1820 literature is moderate, some of it is worth examining because of the problems associated with interpreting it.

There are three separate but related problems: philosophical, methodological, and conceptual. Philosophically, whether one saw the brain as the main organ of sensibility, as did the Hippocratic writers and Galen, or the heart, as did Aristotle, determined the attention given to the brain. The methodological problems arose from the gross structure of the brain not being immediately obvious and the dominant technique of dissecting the brain in transverse sections revealing the ventricles and their immediately associated structures more readily than other structures. Conceptually, the ventricles were seen as the sites through which sensations were transferred to the muscles. Observations relevant to localisation were thus related to the ventricles or to structures lying outside the cerebrum.

What are now considered major structural landmarks were not discovered until late: the Sylvian fissure in about 1640 and the fissure of Rolando in 1829, the former being dependent on new methods of dissection. In general, it was not until the first half of the nineteenth century that the cerebral structures were properly differentiated. Consequently, calls for comparative clinical studies of the effects of lesions in different parts of the brain inevitably fell on ears tuned to a framework which could not incorporate them. So, did the results of the earlier experimental studies.     

Schicksalsmächte

In the first and longer part of his study (I)? the author seeks to reassess both the word‐for‐word meaning and the contextual function of the much debated line 183 nee nulla interea est inaratae gratia terrae. He sees the reason for the impasse of commentators (recently Mynors) in the fact that inaratus is wrongly taken as a negated adj. ("unploughed") whereas it makes better sense taking it as the past participle of inarare (i.e. “ploughed"). St. Ambrose may have read the line in this way. In the second part (II) the author tries to find out how the controversial nullo tantum se Mysia cultu / iactat et ipsa suas mirantur Gargara messis (I 102–103) makes sense in its context. Basing his understanding on the parallel at Aen. 6,876f. he ends up with pleading that cultus should be understood in a more general way ‐ something in the vein of “beautiful quality”;, “refined condition”;.     

Auroral Research and the Character of Astronomy in Enlightenment Sweden

Abstract

The observation of the magnetic effects of the aurora borealis by Olof Hiorter in the 1740s was hailed by Swedish scientists as one of the major discoveries in contemporary research. This article investigates the political and academic context of the discovery, focusing on the astronomical ideals promoted by Hiorter. He used the discovery in order to buttress the importance of his own scientific character – technically competent, hard-working and research-oriented. He contrasted this ideal with the character of an ordinary university professor who was described as more of a bureaucrat, interested in science only as long as it could boost his reputation, and not averse from stealing results of technically more competent underlings. Hiorter's opponents at the university decried his lack of theory and devalued the importance of technical skill. This conflict is discussed in the context of ideals concerning cultural, political and economic values of science and scientists.     

Constraining groundwater flow in the glacial drift and saginaw aquifers in the Michigan Basin through helium concentrations and isotopic ratios

³He and ⁴He concentrations in excess of those in water in solubility equilibrium with the atmosphere by up to two and three orders of magnitude are observed in the shallow Glacial Drift and Saginaw aquifers in the Michigan Basin. A simplified He transport model shows that in situ production is negligible and that most He excesses have a source external to the aquifer. Simulated results show that ³He and ⁴He fluxes entering the bottom of the Saginaw aquifer are 7.5 × 10^?14 and 6.1 × 10^?7 cm³STPcm^?2 yr^?1, both of which are lower than fluxes entering the underlying Marshall aquifer, 1.0 × 10^?13 and 1.6 × 10^?6 cm³STPcm^?2 yr^?1 for ³He and ⁴He, respectively. In contrast, He fluxes entering the Saginaw aquifer are higher than fluxes entering the overlying Glacial Drift aquifer of 5.2 × 10^?14 and 1.5 × 10^?7 cm³STPcm^?2 yr^?1 for ³He and ⁴He, respectively. The unusually high He fluxes and their decreasing values from the lower Marshall to the upper Glacial Drift aquifer strongly suggest the presence of an upward cross‐formational flow, with increasing He dilution toward the surface by recharge water. These fluxes are either comparable to or far greater than He fluxes in deeper aquifers around the world. Model simulations also suggest an exponential decrease in the horizontal groundwater velocity with recharge distance. Horizontal velocities vary from 13 to 2 myr^?1 for the Saginaw aquifer and from 18 to 6 myr^?1 for the Marshall aquifer. The highly permeable Glacial Drift aquifer displays a greater velocity range, from 250 to 5 myr^?1. While Saginaw ⁴He ages estimated based on the simulated velocity field display an overall agreement with ¹⁴C ages, ¹⁴C and ⁴He ages in the Glacial Drift and Marshall aquifers deviate significantly, possibly due to simplifications introduced in the He transport model leading to calculation of first‐order approximation He ages and high uncertainties in Glacial Drift ¹⁴C ages.     

From the Grassroots: Bernard Narokobi and the Making of Papua New Guinea's Constitution

ABSTRACT

Bernard Narokobi's concept of the Melanesian Way was influenced by a variety of factors, including his own childhood in the village, his religion, and the understandings of the people around him. He also drew inspiration from his exposure to the views and opinions of the many Papua New Guineans who contributed to the work of the Constitutional Planning Committee (CPC) between 1972 and 1975 when he served as a consultant to the committee. He shared the belief in a specifically ‘Melanesian’ way of social organization and cosmological understanding with the others who took part in the CPC's work, most prominently its de facto chairman, Father John Momis. With Momis he drew on the people's contributions to formulate PNG's National Goals and Directive Principles, which, at least in part, embody Narokobi's understanding of what it is to be Melanesian.     

Representation and identity ‐ convergence of brain research and mind‐brain philosophy

Abstract

The localization or representation of mental abilities in the brain have always been considered as key questions for understanding the organization of the human nervous system. Particularly with the advent of modern electrophysiological and imaging techniques that provide maps of electromagnetic fields and metabolic processes on the living central nervous system, the representation theory is experiencing a scientific renaissance in neurology, but is only one theory, however, in the succession of a long philosophical tradition dealing with the possible identification of mental phenomena and brain processes. This dichotomy was formulated at the latest in the Cartesian dualism of res cogitans and res extensa of the mind‐body problem. Nowadays philosophical discussion, on the contrary, is dominated by monistic concepts that attempt to explain the mental realm on an organic foundation in order not to succumb to the problem of a psychophysical dualism. Of these, the identity theory offers a philosophically plausible concept postulating that the identity of brain conditions and mental phenomena is based on organic foundations. In this theory, the efforts of brain research converge on the representations of mental phenomena in the human nervous system. In a comprehensive approach, both concepts could complement each other.     

The Rhetoric of the Expressions in the Song by the Sea (Exodus 15,1-18)

The author considers the expressions used in the Song by the Sea (Exodus 15,1-18) in connection with the commonly accepted bipartite structure of the Song. He analyzes the expressions by categorizing them, grouping them, and considering their rhetoric. This literary analysis, supported by tables and graphic illustrations, highlights the basic rhetoric of the Song. The two parts of the Song have different themes but an interconnected rhetoric centered in Yahweh and his relationship with Israel and her enemies.     

Emmanuel de Martonne and the ethnographical cartography of central Europe (1917–1920)

Abstract

Emmanuel de Martonne is well known among geographers as the founding father of geomorphology and as one of Paul Vidal de la Blache's main disciples. He also played a central role as a geographical expert on the Comité d'études, a body set up by Deputy Charles Benoist during the First World War to prepare guidelines for the organization of peace and, in particular, the demarcation of boundaries. De Martonne's special expertise was the construction and comparison of ethnographical maps. He applied his theories on ethnic mapping and improved methods of representation of mixed minorities to his map of the Romanian nation published in 1919 by the Service Géographique de l'Armée. In his reports on Central Europe, de Martonne claimed neutrality, but the graphical options employed on his map offered a biased view of the Romanian nation, inspired mainly by the views of the French school of regional geography.     

Geography and tradition in the patriarchal narratives

Abstract

In connection with a survey of the geographical names found in the patriarchal naratives, it is the aim here to describe the tradition‐history of these narratives. The oldest stratum includes two local heroes belonging to the northern part of the country, Jacob and Joseph, and another two whose home should be sought in the south, Isaac and Abraham. At a later date, most of the traditions about Isaac were usurped by Abraham, and Isaac was reduced to a connecting link between Abraham and Jacob. Joseph is almost unknown, and the story of his sojourn in Egypt must be late. Jacob should originally be considered at home in Bethel and from here he develops (after 722 to become the heros eponymos of a far bigger territory. Jacob's journey to Haran should be understood as a legitimation of the relations between people living in exile in this place and the remaining population of Samaria, whereas he in the post‐exilic period becomes a “Judaean” hero as the son of Isaac The conflict between Jacob and Esau reflects the post‐exilic competition between Judah and Edom. The original home of Abraham is Hebron and the oldest traditions deal with his relationship to Lot. At a later date he usurps the traditions about Isaac, among them the story of the sojourn in Gerar and the sojourn of Israel in Egypt. He is presented as the forerunner of David, the hero of the Jerusalemite cult, and the first monotheistic believer in Yahweh, who initiated the cult on the Temple Mountain in Jerusalem. In the last stage of the development of this tradition, he becomes the link which connect the Primeval History and the patriarchal narratives when he is summoned from Ur of the Chaldees.     

Henry Herbert Donaldson’s (1857–1938) contribution to an organized approach to the experimental study of the mammalian central nervous system

ABSTRACT

This article shows that the academic and research careers of Henry Herbert Donaldson (1857–1938) were directed to provide basic information about the growth of the vertebrate nervous system and to provide standards and the means to make such research efficient. He earned the reputation of making the albino rat a standard laboratory animal. His academic career began when he was an undergraduate at Yale University in 1875 and concluded with his death as Professor and Head of the Department of Neurology at the Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology of the University of Pennsylvania in 1938. During that period, pivotal experiences occurred, including research in physiological chemistry with Chittenden at the Sheffield School at Yale, graduate study at Johns Hopkins University, postgraduate study in Europe, and professorial positions at Clark University and the University of Chicago. It was at Johns Hopkins University that Donaldson learned about the need for physiological, anatomical, and psychophysical research and about the techniques to allow such research. It was at Clark University that he had first-hand and detailed experience with the anatomy of the brain of a deaf-blind-mute woman, as he attempted to correlate her sensory deficits with her brain development. It was at Clark University that he clearly recognized the need for standardization in neurological research. At the University of Chicago, he developed administrative skills and began a coordinated research effort to delimit the growth of the nervous system. It was at Chicago that he learned that the albino rat could be a reasonable subject for such research. It was also at Chicago that he was able to formulate ideas about the future organizational needs of human neuroanatomy. It was at the Wistar Institute that his research program and his professional career matured. He organized a research effort to elucidate the growth of the nervous system. He contributed to the coordination of neurological research in the United States and Europe. It was while at the Wistar Institute that he became well-known for making the albino rat a standard laboratory mammal—a convenient living material for research.     

Can argillaceous formations isolate nuclear waste? Insights from isotopic,noble gas,and geochemical profiles

There is considerable interest in the use of thick argillaceous geologic formations to contain nuclear waste. Here, we show that diffusion can be the controlling transport process in these formations and diffusional time scales for δ¹⁸O and δ²H in water, dissolved He, and Cl transport in shale‐dominated aquitards are typically over 10⁶ years, well exceeding the regulatory requirements for isolation in most countries. Our scientific understanding of diffusive solute transport processes through argillaceous formations would benefit from the application of additional isotopic tracers (e.g., using new ⁴He sampling technology), multidimensional diffusive‐dispersive modeling of groundwater flow and diffusive‐dispersive solute transport over long geologic time scales, and an improved understanding of spatial heterogeneity as well as time‐dependent changes in the subsurface conditions and properties of argillaceous formations in response to events such as glaciation. Based on our current isotopic and geochemical understanding of transport, we argue that argillaceous formations can provide favorable long‐term conditions for isolating nuclear wastes.