Changes in human bones boiled in seawater

The differences between boiled or unboiled bones are not often studied. However, they are crucial to understand postmortem rituals and to establish defleshing procedures and mortuary practices. In this work, human bones boiled in sea or fresh water are characterized. The bone composition, as well as the compounds present in the resulting materials, shows that salt alters the boiling process mechanism. Hence, from structural and morphological criteria, it is possible to distinguish if a bone has been boiled in salt or fresh water. In both sets of samples, the smoothness of the bone surface depends on boiling time, but only in bones boiled in seawater, filaments are observed apparently pouring out of the pores.Those differences which are mainly morphological (smoothness of the surface) are explained in terms of a collagen diffusional mechanism favored by sodium and chloride ions. For a boiling time of 6 h, the surface is covered by a thick layer or crusts of degraded collagen. Experiments with seawater may be used as model experiments to simulate taphonomical alterations in bones exposed to salt water.     

An assessment of the value of bone density measurements to archaeoichthyological studies

This paper reviews the meaning of the term ‘density’ and the problems associated with the methods of density determination for animal bones in archaeology. It has often been assumed that density is the intrinsic property of most influence in controlling the rate of a bone's decay. Values for whole bone density have been published only for large mammal bone, however. Fish bone appears to be particularly vulnerable to decay, and usually a restricted range of skeletal elements are recovered from archaeological sites. The object of this study was to examine the relationship between fish bone density and the ability of the bone to survive on occupation sites and in archaeological deposits. A set of ‘density’ measurements was established for the bones of cod (Gadus morhua). The usefulness of these measurements as a predictive tool in archaeoichthyological studies is assessed. It was found that ‘density’ as measured did not explain adequately the relative survival of skeletal elements after mechanical abrasion and weathering, or within archaeological deposits.     

Distinguishing Remains of Human Cremations from Burned Animal Bones

Abstract

Archaeological remains of human cremations, often consisting of a few calcined bone fragments unassociated with any other indicators of human mortuary behavior, are sometimes difficult to distinguish from mammalian remains representing ancient garbage. Although experimental and archaeological studies of human cremation may facilitate recognition of cremated or otherwise burned mammal bone, they do not provide the necessary criteria to distinguish cremation from other kinds of burning and, therefore, to recognize, immediately, a human cremation in archaeological context. Experiments were conducted to provide criteria for distinguishing the remains of cremated whole large mammals from intensively burned fresh, anhydrous, archaeological, boiled, and baked bones of large mammals. Results indicate that distinctive patterns of cracking, fracturing, and warping of calcined bone, and especially the absence of evidence of perimortem fracture, may alert the excavator to the possibility of a human cremation.     

Bone frequencies: differential transport, in situ destruction,and the MGUI

Human transport of bones with high food values, and destruction of bones with low density values are the traditionally invoked explanations of the frequencies of bones in archeological contexts. The manner in which these two explanations have been used suggests archaeologists assume the explanations to be independent of one another. The transport explanation is operationalized as the modified general utility index (MGUI) of Binford, and the destruction explanation is operationalized with measures of bone density. Statistical correlation of the MGUI with bone density, while weak, indicates that many high utility bones have low density values while many low utility bones have high density values. Because low density bones tend to be destroyed more readily than high density bones, inferences of human utility strategies derived from bone frequencies and based on the MGUI may be inaccurate. The utility strategies suggested by three archaeofaunas are compared to bone density, and two of these faunas are shown to potentially be the result of differential destruction and not human transport as measured by the MGUI.     

“Numbers of individuals” in faunal analysis: the decay of fish bone in archaeological sites

Although quantifying animal remains in archaeological sites is best done by way of bone counts, there are several mechanisms that can cause distortions in the relative frequencies of different species. Some of these problems can be avoided by relatively minor modifications to standard methods, but the situation where bones have decayed since deposition cannot be controlled by methods currently in use.To overcome this a new technique is proposed. This involves comparing the relative frequencies of different anatomical elements across a number of sites, so that the extent of the dispersion of the frequencies of different bone classes at a site can be used as a guide to the extent of attrition there. This approach is illustrated by application to fish bones from sites in New Zealand.     

High Resolution Stratigraphic Distribution of Coprolites within Eneolithic Middens,a Case Study: Hârsova-Tell (Constanta County,Southeast Romania)

Abstract

Quantitative distribution of coprolites, fish bones and mammal bones recovered by wet screening from an Eneolithic midden at Hârsova-tell (southeast Romania) is surveyed within a high resolution stratigraphic framework. The coprolites, all containing bone fragments, are attributed to carnivores/omnivores: dog, pig, man. Highly significant correlation (Spearman's coefficient of rank correlation r_s = 0.46, P < 0.0001) between coprolite distribution and the seasonality-related fish bone distribution suggests that seasonality controls the stratigraphic distribution of coprolites recovered by wet screening within middens. Periods of high fish bone input into the midden, correlated with frequent coprolite occurrences, correspond to the warm season (late spring to early autumn). Assessment of potential factors controlling coprolite distribution within the midden suggests that sections of high coprolite concentration reflect preservation of faeces until embedding in sediments, and/or rapid embedding of faeces. Preservation of faeces is favored by dry periods, characteristic of the summer season in the highly continental climate of the region. Rain, freeze-thaw cycles or other wet season processes favor faeces disintegration. Our results suggest that the stratigraphic distribution of coprolites obtained by wet screening may represent an indicator of seasonality in middens. Additional studies are needed to better characterise this relationship and refine interpretations.     

Prehistoric Butchery and Consumption of Birds in the Kingdom of Tonga,South Pacific

We evaluate the preservational attributes (element frequency, breakage, burning, cut-marks, rodent gnawing, and age) of ca. 500 bird bones from three prehistoric archaeological sites on the Polynesian islands of Foa and Lifuka in the Ha‘apai Group, Kingdom of Tonga. Two of the sites lie in calcareous beach sands whereas the third is the refuse infilling of a well. Although differing in age, all three sites are unequivocally cultural in origin, as evidenced by rich artifact assemblages and various sedimentological features (pits, hearths, etc.) that reflect human activities. The sites also contain bones from a diverse assemblage of marine fish, marine and terrestrial reptiles (sea turtles, iguanas), and terrestrial mammals (fruit bats, rats, pigs, dogs). We find no evidence for deposition of bones (bird or otherwise) in these Tongan sites by non-human agents. This is expected given that we are unaware of any non-human species or geological process that would concentrate the bones of fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals on a beach ridge or in a well in Tonga. This is especially the case since the species range from very small to very large, and represent marine, fresh water, coastal, and forested habitats. Nevertheless, clear evidence of cultural involvement cannot be discerned on most individual bones, whether bird or non-bird. Furthermore, most taphonomic attributes (element frequency, breakage, burning, and cut-marks) of bones of a domesticated species (the chicken, Gallus gallus) resemble those found on bones of indigenous landbirds. We believe that all bones in any zooarchaeological assemblage should be evaluated carefully to determine who or what was responsible for their deposition. We see no reason, however, why bird bones should be held to some standard higher than those applied to the bones of other taxa, as some have suggested.     

Understanding the variability in freshwater radiocarbon reservoir offsets: a cautionary tale

Freshwater resources in past diets can lead to inaccuracies when attempts are made to ascertain their radiocarbon ages or those of the consumers. Radiocarbon reservoir effects may lead to significant age offsets when the bones or other tissues of these consumers are radiocarbon dated. A number of recent studies have investigated freshwater reservoir offsets. However no study thus far has satisfactorily obtained a ubiquitous freshwater reservoir correction due to variability in the ecosystems analysed. This study tests the possibility of predicting freshwater reservoir effects from the carbonate alkalinity of the water with measurements on modern fish bone and water samples. A predictive capability would be especially valuable in the absence of well-preserved archaeological fish bone. We surveyed samples from lakes and rivers in varying geological settings in Britain and Ireland. Modern fish bone and water samples were analysed to investigate modern radiocarbon offsets from the atmosphere. Archaeological fish bone was also analysed to examine past reservoir offsets at selected sites. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope values were measured to aid in interpretation of any variability in the offsets. Large freshwater reservoir offsets were measured in some modern and archaeological samples (maximum offset = 1638 ¹⁴C years). The freshwater reservoir offsets in the fish bone were highly correlated with alkalinity of water in modern lake sites analysed. However, a high amount of variation within and between fish species was also evident in the results, precluding the possibility of providing regional corrections for freshwater reservoir offsets from alkalinity although this still may provide a general guideline. The variability is thought to be due to differences in the diet of individual fish.     

The long–term survival of bone: the role of bioerosion

Fossil bones (N = 350) spanning more than 350 million years, and covering a wide range of depositional environments, were studied to compare the distribution of microbial destruction features in fossil bones with previously published data sets of bones of archaeological age. The distribution of bioerosion in fossil bones is very different from that found in bone from archaeological sites. Fossil bones typically show little or no bioerosion. Under normal conditions, if a bone is to survive into the fossil record, then rapid bioerosion must be prevented (or halted). This conclusion suggests that early post mortem processes,such as the mode of death, influence the potential of any bone to survive into deep time.     

Túnel: A Case Study of Avian Zooarchaeology and Taphonomy

Although not often considered, there are many osteological characters unique to the avian skeleton that influence the taphonomy of bird bones. These characters are reviewed and their archaeological significance discussed herein. The presence of marrow in many avian long bones is important to interpretation of avian remains from archaeological sites because the presence of marrow affects bone density and, in turn, preservation. Other structural properties that affect avian bone preservation include cortical wall thickness, length and pneumatic state. Based on an analysis of approximately 10,000 bird bones from the archaeological site of Túnel, Tierra del Fuego, Argentina, I found that specific breakage patterns resulted from natural taphonomic processes acting as a result of the unique avian bone characteristics. This information may allow researchers to distinguish breakage patterns in avian bones resulting from natural taphonomic processes from breakage patterns that are culturally induced.     

BUTCHERING PATTERNS AND SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF FAUNAL ANIMAL REMAINS CONSUMED AT THE LOS MILLARES CHALCOLITHIC SETTLEMENT (SANTA FE DE MONDÚJAR,ALMERÍA,SPAIN)

The archaeological settlement of Los Millares (Santa Fe de Mondújar, Almería) is located in the Mediterranean coastal area of southern Spain. This archaeological site constitutes one of the most important settlements belonging to the Copper Age in the Iberian Peninsula and has given its name to the ‘millariense’ culture. The settlement has been completely excavated, yielding major archaeological faunal remains, with 27,426 bone fragments classified by researchers from Munich University (Germany). In this paper, we apply different statistical methods (mainly χ² analysis) to study the spatial distribution of bones from domestic and wild animals, reconstructing the patterns of appearance within specific functional spaces. These functions can be associated with meat consumption (sites to cut the animals into small pieces, areas where the meat was eaten, garbage sites, etc.) and the production of handmade objects (bone tools, stone tools, etc.). The results show different spatial distributions of faunal remains within the areas of the settlement, according to the animal species and particular parts of the animal skeleton, as well as the age and the sex of individuals. The findings reflect social behaviour that relates the consumption of certain species to a specific sector of population, and such behaviour can be discerned in the animal remains. Moreover, there is evidence regarding economic matters, such as meat production and the exchange of animals, which require further research.     

Macroscopic and microbiological alterations of bird and small mammal bones buried in a Cerrado biome (south western Brazil)

In this paper, we present the results of an experimental approach developed to study the macroscopic and microbiological alteration of bird and small mammal bones buried under a Cerrado biome. The first experiment evaluated the macroscopic alteration of cooked and fresh carcasses buried through the dry and rainy seasons. The second experiment analyzed the mycobiota associated to the decomposition of a complete bird that remained buried for almost a year. Results show that in tropical forest environments: 1) bone structure and pre-taphonomic factors determine its differential alteration by biochemical processes; 2) fungal populations associated to the decomposition of animal remains depend on soil chemistry and ecological dynamics; 3) even in a corrosive environment, bird bones are more capable of surviving to several mycological decomposition steps.     

Histological identification of bone fragments in archaeology: telling humans apart from horses and cattle

In archaeology, it is not always possible to identify bone fragments. A novel approach was chosen to assess the potential of histology as an identification tool in those instances in which macroscopical study (e.g. by means of bone surface texture) has failed. This study concentrated on the diaphyses of long bones in three species of comparable size which are relevant to archaeology. Late juvenile and adult human diaphyseal bone structure was compared with the bone structure of horses and cattle. Since bone structure can differ even within a single bone, the restrictions in terms of bone category, bone part and species were deemed necessary for the development of a useful identification method for archaeological bone. The reference series comprised long bones from several individuals to broaden the insight into variations in diaphyseal bone structure within a single species. A general difference in the primary bone types was found between humans and the two large mammals. Human bone displayed lamellar bone types, whereas horses and cattle showed fibrous bone types. The only exceptions were separated growth layers. A difference in the secondary bone structure was also observed. A large number of connecting, primary (Volkmann's) canals, giving the secondary bone a reticular aspect, were common in horses and cattle. They were not, however, present in the human bones studied. To confirm the validity and applicability of these differences, a blind test was conducted on 15 diaphyseal fragments of identified long bones from archaeological sites. The results were very promising. Although four fragments could not be identified due to severe degradation, all the others were correctly attributed. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Experimental effects of bone size and temperature on bone diagenesis

In the ground, bone undergoes chemical and physical changes which affect its preservation. This fact has important implications for dating and other analytical procedures involving bone, as well as faunal analysis where differential preservation of bones of different species may affect conclusions regarding the relative significance of an animal to the economy of a given society. The diagenic processes in bone range from minor changes in the bone protein to complete structural and chemical breakdown.Using fresh cow bone, we conducted laboratory experiments which simulate the effect of temperature and bone size on the rate and nature of bone disintegration in archaeological sites. Temperature influences the rate of chemical change, and bone size and density affect the accessibility of the molecular constituents of bone to extrinsic chemical reactions. These findings clarify the importance of two well-known concepts in bone taphonomy. (1) The rate of chemical breakdown in bone tissues is related to the proximity of a given unit of tissue to the bone surface. This means that, in archaeological bone samples, tissue near the surface may be different chemically from tissue away from the surface and great care is necessary in choosing and preparing bone samples for analytical procedures. (2) In general, small bones are not as well preserved as large bones, therefore small animals are likely to be underrepresented in faunal assemblages.     

Probable evidences of bone accumulation by Pleistocene bearded vulture at the archaeological site of El Mirón Cave (Spain)

The bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), a bird or prey that mainly feeds on bones of large mammal carcasses, has been recently evidenced as an accumulating agent with significant contributions to palaeontological assemblages in caves and shelters, but extremely rare at archaeological sites. The results of the taphonomic analyses carried out in the Upper Palaeolithic layers of El Mirón Cave (Cantabrian Spain), which are presented here, evidence the existence of special digestive marks and a typical skeletal pattern in a noticeable amount of small and medium-sized ungulates bones. This fact suggest that a representative part of the bone assemblage has been caused by bearded vultures, and strengthens the idea that this bird has to be definitely included among other potential non-human accumulators in archaeological sites.     

Size Estimation of Kingsoldier Bream (Argyrops spinifer) and Evidence of Fishing Strategies

This paper provides regression formulae for size estimation of kingsoldier bream (Argyrops spinifer) from measurements taken on bones enabling the reconstruction of the size of fish present in archaeological samples. Bones of Sparidae are commonly recovered from archaeological sites bordering the Arabian Gulf, and, of the species within this family, kingsoldier bream are relatively abundant with the bones also easily identifiable. The marine environment where this fish occurs varies throughout its life cycle, and therefore the reconstructed size of the fish can be used to infer the types of location where past fishing activities took place. Comparison of the estimated size of fish caught from two Late Islamic sites on the northwest coast of Qatar, in combination with other evidence, has been used to indicate differing frequencies of fishing methods at the two sites. This variation in fishing is caused by the topography of the coast in the immediate vicinity of the sites with shallow waters providing a wide tidal zone at the northern of the two with an environment suitable for fishing with stone‐built intertidal fish traps (known in Arabic as al maskar). The topography of the coast at the southern of the two sites is steeper, and the settlement was an important trading port so the coast was utilised primarily as a harbour rather than a fishing ground. The supply of fish at this settlement was provided by fishermen more commonly using basket traps (gargoor) and handlines with fishing taking place from boats. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Seasonal Variation in Fishing Strategies at Two Iroquoian Village Sites Near Lake Simcoe,Ontario

Abstract

In this paper we present an analysis of fish bones from the Barrie and Dunsmore sites, two pre-contact Iroquoian longhouse villages located between Lake Simcoe, and Georgian Bay of Lake Huron, Ontario. We use a combination of fish biology, habitat and spawning data to interpret when and where different fish species were obtained. After identifying co-occurrences of species in major features at each site, we suggest the existence of three fisheries complexes. There is some overlap in species composition between these complexes. In an attempt to distinguish between them, we also investigate probable technique and time of capture through fish bone size distribution. We use our findings to identify inter- and intra-site differences in fish procurement.     

Evidence for kill-butchery events of early Upper Paleolithic age at Kostenki,Russia

At least 10 early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) open-air sites are found at Kostenki on the west bank of the Don River in Russia. During the 1950s, A.N. Rogachev excavated concentrations of horse bones and teeth from EUP layers at Kostenki 14 and 15 exhibiting the characteristics of kill-butchery assemblages. Excavations at Kostenki 12 in 2002–2003 uncovered a large quantity of reindeer and horse bones in EUP Layer III that also might be related to kill-butchery events, and the partial skeleton of a sub-adult mammoth excavated during 2004–2007 in EUP Layer V at Kostenki 1 yields traces of butchery. The character of these large mammal assemblages – combined with the analysis of artifacts and features – suggests that both habitation areas and kill-butchery locations are represented in a “EUP landscape” at Kostenki.     

Skeletal manifestations of vitamin D deficiency osteomalacia in documented historical collections

The frequency with which changes related to vitamin D deficiency are recorded in juvenile bone from archaeological contexts makes it clear that conditions conducive to such deficiency were fairly widespread at a number of points in the past. Although changes will take longer to be manifest in the adult skeleton than in juveniles, and may not be as obvious, the scarcity of reported cases suggests that it is likely that cases of osteomalacia are being overlooked in archaeological human bone. Vitamin D is probably better described as a hormone, rather than a vitamin, and the production of vitamin D within the body following exposure to sunlight allows adequate mineralisation of bone to take place. Lack of exposure to sunlight, which can be caused by a range of factors, is probably one of the main causes of vitamin D deficiency. The result of such a deficiency is a general weakening of the skeleton. The range of skeletal changes recorded across different bones of the skeleton in two documented historical pathology collections (the Galler collection, Basel, and the collection of the Federal Museum for Pathological Anatomy, Vienna), are discussed for scapulae, vertebrae, ribs, sterna, pelves and femora. The likelihood of each feature being preserved in archaeological skeletal material is considered. Although the changes associated with osteomalacia may lead to fragmentation of the skeleton, the presence of characteristic changes on bones from across the skeleton should make the condition identifiable using macroscopic examination, even where the skeleton is not well preserved. The identification of cases of osteomalacia in archaeological skeletal material is potentially significant because of the socio‐cultural information that can be implied from diagnosis of the condition. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Destruction of microstructure in archaeological bone: a case study from Portugal

Sampling of archaeological human bone may not be justified, contrary to former high expectations regarding adult age assessment based on histomorphometry. The alterations in buried bone as a result of bacterial action are readily visible in the scanning electron microscope (SEM). An understanding of the chemical and structural changes to cortical bone requires work at the level of a few microns. This paper reports on problems encountered during analyses of samples of human bone from Mesolithic (ca. 8000 calbp) shell midden sites at Muge in central Portugal, and the methods used to try and overcome these problems. We believe we have shown that these Mesolithic bones are partly comprised of bacterially reprecipitated mineral, which has had collagen removed, with consequent obliteration of bone microstructure. We conclude that microbial destruction of the structure of archaeological bone can be a serious impediment to analysis of the characteristics of the population represented by those skeletal remains. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.