出自佛教典籍的口语词

敦煌文献的发现,促进了近代汉语等学科的发展.吕叔湘先生把以敦煌变文为代表的敦煌俗文学作品看作是近代汉语跟古代汉语的分界线,可见敦煌文献材料对汉语史研究的重大意义.自汉末迄隋唐,是汉语处于大变化、大转折的时期.在这段时期内,卷帙浩繁的梵文系统的佛经被译成中文介绍进中土.由于译经大多为番僧口译、信士笔受,所以,译文必然是一种比较接近于口语的通俗文本,如梁启超所言:"若专以文论,则当时诸译师,实可谓力求通俗.     

The Italian industrial districts and the crisis of the cooperative form: Part II

Part I of this paper set out the theory of the industrial district and presented the first of three case studies on the Italian districts, questioning the long‐run stability of these social formations qua locally embedded networks of symmetrically powerful small and medium‐sized cooperative competitors, governed by relations of trust and the sharing of information. That first case examined the emergence of lead firms and hierarchical control within the food packaging machinery industry of Emilia‐Romagna. Here, Part II retraces the transformation of the clothing giant, Benetton, from one among many small subcontractors into the apex of a global production and distribution network not unlike such vertical Japanese keiretsu as Toyota. The third case, on the current competitive crisis of the Pratese system of woolen textile production, emphasizes the contingent character of ‘trusting’ relations among small firms, and exposes the contradictions of excessively fragmented production systems during periods of heightened international competition.     

The Italian industrial districts and the crisis of the cooperative form: Part I

The theory of the industrial districts—spatial clusters of mutually supporting, mostly small and medium‐sized, flexibly specialized enterprises, held together by virtue of their deep local embedding and relations of trust—is now a well‐developed part of regional planning doctrine and folklore. The canonical cases are those located in the so‐called Third Italy’. In Part I of this paper, I review the theory, and present the first of three case studies, each of which challenges one or another fundamental element of the district model. Here, I consider evidence of penetration into the Emilian food packaging machinery district by outside financial interests, which have proceeded to impose hierarchical order on what had previously been more collaborative relations among more or less symmetrically powerful firms. The remaining two cases—on the emergence of vertical production systems in the clothing sector of the Veneto, and on the contradictions of excessive fragmentation in the production of Pratese woolen textiles—will be presented in Part II. These cases do not point to economic failure, per se, but they do (I think) point to an underlying contingency and ultimate instability of the canonical district form.     

Mechanics,thermodynamics and locomotive design: Analytical methods and the classic form

The railway machine‐ensemble was brought to the classical condition by applying rational management, and associated techniques, which were developed by F.W. Taylor, F.B. Gilbreth, and H.L. Gantt. These methods identified the Stephenson‐Goss archetype, operated on the Common User system, as the ideal form of locomotive for the steam operated railway. It is argued that when a system is brought to the classical condition it usually approaches Design Impasse, and obsolescence.

The application of rational methods to the machine‐ensemble is related to the creative, derivative, and synthetic traditions of engineering design.     

Behind the form: A historical analysis of the agriculture encouragement system in the Song dynasty

Using the political culture analysis method, this paper discusses the origin, contents and functions of the agriculture encouragement system of the Song dynasty, which originated from the pre-Qin period (221–207 BC). The main content of this system in its early stage is that in the early Spring days, the king symbolically ploughed a piece of land near the suburbs of his capital in order to send to his subjects a clear message of the importance he attached to agriculture. It was expected that peasants would be encouraged by his majesty’s guidance, and thus agricultural production of the countryside would be promoted. With the rationalization of the political system since the Qin period, agricultural encouragement gradually became a routine work of the Chinese governments at different levels. Under the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127), “agricultural encouragement envoy” was added to the official rank of heads of counties and prefectures. They each were required to take the responsibility of persuading peasants in their jurisdiction to work harder in the field. The actual work as an “agricultural encouragement envoy” in the Song dynasty was to go to the countryside to reward peasants with food and wine in early February, and to write an essay to express his encouragement, and to distribute it to the peasants. Formalistic as it is, the agricultural encouragement system is a typical manifestation of the traditional Chinese political culture. As one of its social impacts on the Song society, it helped the spread of advanced agricultural technology with its institutional basis. __________ Translated from: Zhejiang Daxue Xuebao, Renwen Shehui Kexue Ban 浙江大学学报: 人文社会科学版 (Journal of Zhejiang University, Humanities and Social Science), No. 1, 2004     

女性民俗：性别的民俗文化透视——与邱国珍、李文、吴翔之等讨论

文章针对2008年《民俗研究》第一期中《女性民俗与社会和谐》一文中作者提出并初步研究的女性民俗、女性民俗文化概念和问题,讨论提出女性民俗在性别民俗中独立存在可能性问题,以及女性在性别民俗中的内涵发现与理解,并由此分析女性民俗概念表述乏力的原因。     

Size and form in the analysis of flake debris: Review and recent approaches

Flake debris — the by-product of lithic reduction — is abundant, not subject to uncontrolled collection, and sometimes culturally diagnostic. Its greatest virtue, however, is in registering the kinds and amounts of toolmaking and tool-using behavior that curated tools themselves may not. Most debris studies emphasize formal dimensions, yet even the best approaches assume rather than demonstrate a relationship between behavior and formal variation. Moreover, the diversity of formal typologies hinders interassemblage comparison. Progress in debris analysis has two prerequisites: (1) a minimum attribute set for individual flakes and (2) the combination of formal and continuous approaches to variation. Preliminary study suggests that Ahler's mass-analysis model and log skew Laplace functions hold particular promise for behavioral interpretation from debris assemblages.     

The Merovingian accounting documents of Tours: form and function

A little fewer than thirty Merovingian accounting documents which originated from the Abbey of St Martin of Tours, though fragmentary, provide for the historians of early medieval Europe an unexpected tool with which the latter could cast a new light over actual conditions in tribute collection and the management system for the fiscal administration of the abbey. The present article asks some basic questions about these accounting documents in the hope of casting further light on their form and function: which form did take the documents while they had been used for the collection of dues? At which stage of collecting procedure they served in the abbey as a tool for the keeping of records? When was each document prepared? In which historical context could be placed the birth of fiscal document of the abbey? All of these question are important for an understanding of the history of St Martin's of Tours and of the use of documents in general in the Merovingian era.     

Outer form and internal disease: clinical photography in the late 19th century

Clinical photography in the late 19th century aimed at unveiling the hidden processes invisible to the clinical eye. Changes in the outer form hinted at deeper lying causes, and decoding these forms was supposed to extend the range of the clinical eye in to the realm of invisibility. Two suppositions supported this hope: the belief that each disease as an ontological entity showed typical exterior signs which allowed a diagnosis at sight, and the technological trust in photography as a precise and objective means of representation superior to the human eye. For a short time, clinical photography seemed to be the 'via regia" of diagnosis. Heinrich Curschmann's Klinische Abbildungen and Ludwig Jankau's periodical Internationale medizinisch-photographische Monatsschrift marked the climax of this development in Germany. R?ntgen's discovery and its immediate application in clinical medicine put an end to the optimistic expectations: clinical photography was from now on only one among many different means of documenting clinical signs and findings.     

Diatoms as bioindicators of site use: locating turf structures from the Viking Age

Diatoms recovered from archaeological features on a Viking Age farmstead excavation in the Mosfell Valley in southwestern Iceland are utilized as microscopic indicators of turf-based structures. Eroded turf can be difficult to distinguish macroscopically from naturally occurring sediments because turf foundations erode and melt into the landscape over time, leaving minimal evidence of site use. Turf was a principle building component in Iceland until the early 20th century. Turf strips and blocks were harvested from lowlands where organically rich peat and abundant water contributed to the development of bog plants with thick root mats that produced premium turf. Diatoms embedded in turf reflect the ecological conditions of the peat-bog at the time of deposition. Turf was cut from the bog and transported to higher elevations where drainage was more conducive to house construction. Siliceous diatom frustules are resistant to decay and preserve well archaeologically. The presence of diatoms in archaeological sediments is considered a marker of sediment provenience and an indication of human site use and anthropogenic modification of natural substrates. This paper demonstrates how diatom analysis can determine the presence and delimitation of archaeological features otherwise difficult to distinguish with the naked eye.     

Images of Uncertainty: some thoughts on the meaning of form in in the art of Late Antiquity

Abstract

My concern is with the change in style in the visual arts which occurred with the emergence of Late Antiquity. The discussion is intended to fall into three parts; in the first part I review how art historians have approached Late Antique art and examine some of the theoretical positions that have arisen through attempts to explain style in art; in the second part I shall endeavour to formulate my own theoretical explanation and I shall go on, in the third part, using some examples, to consider how this theoretical formulation is particularly valuable in the analysis of the art of the Late Antique period.     

The form, the permit and the photograph: an archive of mobility between South Africa and India

Inspired by recent scholarship that calls for a more critical engagement with archives and knowledge production, this article plots the biography of an archive in Cape Town. Unravelling the layers of paperwork, it locates the origins of the archive in a repressive state project of excluding Indian immigrants and controlling those within the borders of the Cape Colony. The paper trail reveals documents of identity and the state’s attempts to verify identity. In seeking to answer the question as to how the historian should approach such an archive of control and surveillance, it concludes that a social history and gendered approach to migration is possible and the real treasures are those documents that enter the archive beyond the limits of state intentions.     

Russian and Central European family structures: a comparative view

Some general features of family structure in Russia and Central Europe in the eighteenth century are examined and compared. Sources of data for Yaroslavl', a province northeast of Moscow, are evaluated. Principles of family structure are analyzed, with a focus on the basic pattern of patrilineality in the area. Features examined include variations in family size and complexity, the existence of the seniority principle in the hierarchy of family authority, problems concerning remarriage, patterns of age at marriage, variations in the length of intervals between generations, family kinship structures, and the presence of non-blood relatives in the household.     

Going underground: experimental carbonization of fruiting structures under hearths

We show that carbonized fruits and seeds recovered from Middle Stone Age deposits in rock shelters are likely to have been carbonized as part of post-depositional processes. We buried indigenous South African fruits, nuts and seeds at pre-determined depths and distances from the centers of experimental fires. The cold ashes of the hearths and the sand surrounding them were subsequently excavated, using standard archaeological techniques and dry-screening. The fruiting structures from the oxidizing part of the fire were burnt to ashes, whereas those buried in sand under anoxic conditions survived in varying forms. Those buried 5 cm below the center of the fire were carbonized; those buried 10 cm below the center of the fire were dehydrated; and those 5 cm and 10 cm below the surface at the outer edge of the fire were unaffected. Size, moisture or oil content of the original fruit or seed did not appear to influence whether or not carbonization took place. Temperatures recorded 5 cm below the experimental fires suggest that the carbonization occurred at or before a maximum temperature of 328 °C, and also at lower maximum temperatures (152 °C) that were maintained for long periods. Even when the quantities of a particular wood are controlled, open fires may produce variable underground temperatures and the temperatures below ancient hearths would have been equally variable. We suggest that Cyperaceae (sedge) nutlets, the most numerous fruiting structures in the Sibudu Middle Stone Age archaeobotanical assemblage, occur in the shelter as a result of human activity, subsequent burial, and accidental carbonization when hearths were built directly above the buried nutlets.