Freedom and the Responsibility of Science Science and the Public

Abstract

Academic essays in Germany either start or end with a citation from Goethe. I cannot refrain from this tradition as I have in mind three lines which described the situation in his time and during the last century, but which no longer hold true in our changing world. This is not easy to accept, especially for a scientist.     

The Freshwater-Supply Problems of Mankind

Four Soviet hydrologists stress the usefulness of the water-balance principle in estimating the volume of water resources available to mankind. They carefully distinguish between the stable subsurface component of runoff, which has been mapped for the USSR at 1:5 million (and is now being mapped at 1:2.5 million) and the surface runoff, or flood, component. Measures are recommended to increase subsurface runoff at the expense of the surface component. These measures include autumn plowing to reduce sheetwash of snowmelt waters in spring, snowpack management in winter and windbreak planting. Other meliorative measures are irrigation and swamp drainage, both of which need to be placed on a more scientific basis with properly worked-out principles and norms. In discussing the world water-supply problem, the authors rule out recourse to new water sources, such as seawater desalination and glacier melting, and insist that mankind must preserve existing water resources by curbing the discharge of waste waters into natural bodies of water. The proposed recycling principles would increase consumptive use for water-supply needs, but would substantially reduce total withdrawals below the level that can be expected if present water-use practices continue to be followed.     

TIBETAN MEDICINE: Wealth for All Mankind

Tibetan MedicineTibetan medicine has a history of morethan 2,000 years, drawing on traditionalChinese medicine and ancient indianand Arabic medicine.It boasts good theoretical theory andsound clinical experience. "The outsideworld does not know that Tibetan medicine revealed the mystery of humanembryology as early as the 12th century," said Qamba Chilai, a noted Tibetanmedicine expert.According to Renwang, Deputy Directorof the Beijing Tibetan Medicine Hospitaland a noted expert in heart…     

The University of the Future

Abstract

The economic and social pressures on universities will require a more flexible approach to education to be evolved if the system is to survive. An increasingly multicultural and multiethnic mix of students and the growing number of older students demand the ability to tailor programmes to the individuals concerned. Use of fibre optic and other high speed communications technology will be crucial in this endeavour, allowing courses to be pooled between institutions, while multimedia facilities and virtual reality offer students unrivalled opportunities to expand their educational experience. The future must also rest on increased collaboration with industry and in closer integration of universities into their local communities.     

The Future of the State

After reviewing the historically specific characteristics of the modern nation state, this essay discusses both supranational and infranational forces which now work to undermine some of the powers and functions of even the oldest and most firmly established states. Two popular visions of alternative arrangements, associated with free-market ultra-liberalism and the philosophy of ‘small is beautiful’, are rejected, since neither the market nor the decentralization or breakup of existing states can provide adequate solutions to their problems. As trends in economic development increase the likelihood that wealth will be generated by a smaller proportion of total populations, the redistributive function of the public sector is likely to become more important than ever.     

Seeds for the Future: The Materialities of Traditional Ecological Knowledge

Many collaborative projects between Indigenous peoples and archaeologists have focused on traditional ecological knowledge, emphasizing long-term use and patterns of continuity and innovation. Through an investigation of medicinal plant use at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation, located in southeastern New England, archaeobotanical remains are considered the outcomes of everyday environmental interaction. The charred plant remains, which can be identified as the materials of traditional ecological knowledge, are viewed as evidence of efforts to preserve and modify current practice and as interventions to shape future practice. Through this collaborative, multi-dimensional examination, we can access the “seeds” for the future and explore how Indigenous peoples, specifically women, were historical actors during the process of colonization in North America.     

Ancient DNA for the Archaeologist: The Future of African Research

Ancient DNA analyses are increasingly popular in archaeology. With the exception of Egypt, the African continent has been grossly understudied using these techniques. We review the state of ancient DNA research on Africa, ancient DNA analysis techniques, and common pitfalls in these studies. We provide recommendations for archaeologists interested in collecting and interpreting ancient DNA data.     

The Future of the Philosophy of Historiography

This article argues that the perception of decline among philosophers of history reflects the diffused weak academic status of the discipline, as distinct from the booming research activity and demand for philosophy of history that keeps pace with the growth rate of publications in the philosophies of science and law. This growth is justified and rational because the basic problems of the philosophy of history, concerning the nature of historiographical knowledge and the metaphysical assumptions of historiography, have maintained their relevance. Substantive philosophy of history has an assured popularity but is not likely to win intellectual respectability because of its epistemic weaknesses. I suggest focusing on problems that a study of historiography can help to understand and even solve, as distinct from problems that cannot be decided by an examination of historiography, such as the logical structure of explanation (logical positivism)and the relation between language and reality (post‐structuralism). In particular, following Quine's naturalized epistemology, I suggest placing the relation between evidence and historiography at the center of the philosophy of historiography. Inspired by the philosophy of law, I suggest there are three possible relations between input (evidence)and output in historiography: determinism, indeterminism, and underdeterminism. An empirical examination of historiographical agreement, disagreement, and failure to communicate may indicate which relation holds at which parts of historiography. The historiographical community seeks consensus, but some areas are subject to disagreements and absence of communication; these are associated with historiographical schools that interpret conflicting models of history differently to fit their evidence. The reasons for this underdetermination of historiography by evidence needs to be investigated further.