Integrating Archaeological Heritage into Towns and Settlements

ABSTRACT

This article explores factors concerning the urban integration of archaeological heritage in towns and settlements. Archaeological heritage refers to visible, immovable archaeological remains (such as the remains of buildings or structures), sites, and areas (larger complexes). As part of the multidisciplinary process of archaeological heritage management, based on understanding the significance of a site and the goal of enhancing and preserving archaeological heritage in situ, urban integration and its determining factors have not been the subject of systematic research. The present study is derived from the application of deductive research based on theoretical assumptions validated by a qualitative survey. Research has identified 17 factors as the basis for the urban integration of archaeological heritage in towns and settlements. These factors represent a theoretical and practical contribution not only to urban planning but also to archaeological heritage management.     

Political Crisis and Palestine's Cultural Heritage: A Case Study from the Khirbet el-Lauz Site in Area C

Abstract

The protection of Palestine's archaeological heritage faces several serious obstacles: unenforced laws, lack of public awareness, deterioration of Palestine's economic status, unregulated urban development, and the protracted political conflict between the Palestinians and Israelis. As a result, a significant number of archaeological features and sites have been vandalized, looted, or intentionally destroyed without compunction over the past several decades. The Palestinian-Israeli political conflict has negatively affected the archaeological heritage in “Area C,” which remains under complete Israeli civil and military control. This area includes nearly 60% of the archaeological heritage located within the Palestinian Occupied Territories, but the Palestinian Department of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage lacks the authority to monitor and protect these sites. Furthermore, the Israeli civil and military authorities in the West Bank do not provide the necessary protection of cultural heritage resources in Area C. The devastation of these resources throughout the Palestinian Territories provides the impetus for this research. The main aim is to identify the results of the political conflict on Palestinian archaeological and cultural heritage sites, using a case study at the site of Khirbet el-Lauz.     

GEOPHYSICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS AT THE CLEMENT SITE,A CADDO MOUND COMPLEX IN SOUTHEASTERN OKLAHOMA

Abstract

Since the 1960s, few professional archaeological excavations have been conducted at Caddo sites in southeastern Oklahoma. This article summarizes the initial phase of a research program designed to increase our knowledge of this area. Geophysical and archaeological investigations at the Clement site (34Mc8) were conducted during the summer of 2008 by the University of Oklahoma. These revealed deep middens, intact mound stratigraphy, and architecture, and suggest that Clement had multiple Caddo occupations spanning approximately 300 years.     

On the challenges and benefits of indoor archaeology: 15 years at the Archeodome (Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village,South Dakota)

Abstract

Field archaeology is normally associated with outdoor excavation and exposure to the natural environment. Archaeological excavations have adapted to a wide spectrum of these conditions, but the recent prominence of archaeological sites as tourist attractions and educational facilities has occasionally led to dramatically different environments for the archaeological recovery, interpretation, and preservation of evidence, including facilities that permit indoor excavation. This article explores 15 years of experience at the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village in South Dakota. An “Archeodome” covering part of the site represents a non-traditional excavation and preservation environment that presents considerable benefits and challenges for archaeologists. The structure provides the basis for evaluating the nature of indoor excavation within its archaeological and educational context and provides a cautionary note for archaeologists, heritage groups, tourist boards, and others interested in the preservation of archaeological sites. Though this article focuses on the Mitchell site, the information reported has broad implications for sites where structures cover archaeological deposits.     

Site Conservation in Morocco: The Emergence of a Practice at Aghmat

Abstract

It is still uncommon for foreign and national archaeological excavations in Morocco to include architectural or site conservators during the excavation and post-excavation periods. The few existing examples of conservation have all been carried out long after the site or the building had been excavated. The site conservation activities during the Aghmat excavations in summer 2006 illustrate how the presence of archaeological conservators, advising the archaeological team and implementing urgent interventions, has ensured a safe excavation and has contributed to the preservation of the physical integrity of the excavated buildings. The excavation of the imposing archaeological features of the medieval bath of Aghmat provided the first opportunity in Moroccan archaeology for Moroccan archaeological conservators to be involved in condition assessment, planning, and provision of conservation activities to preserve the bath.

The primary aim of this paper is to present the site conservation experience in the Aghmat project, which is the first such project to be initiated during an excavation, and to be conducted mainly by a Moroccan team; it aims also to highlight the conservation procedures adopted and to incite discussion.     

Satellite Remote Sensing Methods for Monitoring Archaeological Tells in the Middle East

Abstract

Using a variety of types of satellite imagery (SPOT, Corona, Landsat, and Quickbird) and concentrating on archaeological sites in the Egyptian floodplain, this paper proposes methods for monitoring the rate of archaeological site destruction in the Middle East. This image analysis shows how tells can be documented and monitored from computers anywhere in the world, emphasizing the multispectral capabilities and applications of satellites. The effects of population growth, looting, urban expansion, and war on archaeological sites in Egypt are reviewed, and a system is proposed to record sites by focusing on their individual spectral profiles. The analysis demonstrates how satellite imagery analysis can be applied to similar flood plain environments in Israel, Jordan, Syria, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, and Iraq.     

An Integrated Survey of Roman Urbanization at Potentia,Central Italy

Abstract

Our research contributes to the study of Roman urbanization in the Italian peninsula, both in the central Adriatic area and beyond. It focuses on the integrated use of archaeological field methods and non-destructive techniques. The study of the urban layout of the city of Potentia is an example of the use of low altitude aerial detection combined with regular grid-walking and geophysical survey to intensively investigate abandoned classical town sites. Information can be combined in a new approach to the study of urbanization processes in the heartland of the Roman world, and this integrated methodology can be applied to any large archaeological site with regular patterning such as orthogonal street layouts and planned civic centers.     

Archaeological Site Management and Local Involvement: A Case Study from Abu Rawash,Egypt

Abstract

Local involvement is an essential element of successful archaeological site management. Recognition of the role of the local community could make a great contribution in improving the present critical situation of many archaeological sites worldwide. In Egypt, where internationally renowned archaeological sites attract both academic and tourism interests, archaeological sites and monuments are suffering from different issues. Amongst the various causes is the failure to recognize the relationship between the sites and the present society — both the local community and other stakeholders — and this has negatively influenced the sites. Not only have the local communities been given limited access to knowledge, and limited opportunities to become involved in the archaeology, but also their attempts to pursue a better standard of living have been restricted for the sake of protecting the national heritage. In this article I use a case study from Abu Rawash to explore strategies that could encourage local involvement in site management, through capacity building and communication with the government and other stakeholders. Although local involvement may not provide a drastic improvement of an individual site's condition, the principle of local involvement should contribute to a general improvement in Egypt, where conservation efforts largely focus on physical materials and little attention is given to the society surrounding the archaeological remains.     

Plant exploitation and ethnopalynological evidence from the Wadi Teshuinat area (Tadrart Acacus,Libyan Sahara)

Pollen analyses of 13 archaeological sites in the Wadi Teshuinat area, in southwestern Fezzan, Libya, were synthesised to explore the potential contribution of palynological investigation to archaeological research in this area. During the Holocene, the sites were occupied by pre-Pastoral (hunter–gatherers) and Pastoral (pastoralists) cultures. Different pollen stratigraphies and floras characterised the diverse sites and the relevant cultural phases. Pollen data were reported by discussing the sites separately, and by combining them to interpret the regional data set. Emphasis was made on the anthropogenic pollen indicators and grasses, including large grass pollen grains (>40 μm), which were considered evidence of plant transport into the site. These were ethnobotanical markers, human-made evidence of plant harvesting by hunter–gatherers, or of animal breeding by pastoralists. The disappearance of some wild cereals was also observed, consistent with increasing climate dryness and land exploitation. Macroremains were used as a parallel tool to better understand plant exploitation in the region.     

The unification of archaeological sites of Athens: The birth of an archaeological park?

Abstract

Recently, there has been a growing trend to present archaeological resources in the form of archaeological parks. These are an innovative way of presenting vast archaeological sites that contain a number of monuments, as a single entity, using components of the environment as interpretation features and creating an ‘invented’ integrity of the landscape. Even though the overall concept of an archaeological park emerged in Scandinavia at least three decades ago, only recently has it taken on a wider character and been applied to a variety of archaeological sites. But no clear criteria exist for them.

The current project of the Unification of the Archaeological Sites of Athens involves creating an archaeological park that includes most features considered essential for a park of this kind. However, the special characteristics of Athens (the over-built urban landscape, environmental pollution, and the mystical relationship between the ancient and modern cities), give the future park a rather individual character.     

Animal Remains from the Carter Creek Site: Late Woodland Adaptive Strategies in the Upland Frontier of West Central Illinois

Abstract

The Carter Creek site (11-Md-817) was a village located at the prairie edge in west central Illinois during the early Late Woodland Weaver phase (Esarey et al. 1984). This occupation represents a frontier upland community (Green 1987, 1993). Animal remains recovered from the Carter Creek site are compared to contemporaneous samples from the region in order to test hypotheses proposed by Green (1987, 1993) and Styles (2000). It is found that the “pioneers” at Carter Creek continued to hunt and fish as their ancestors had (cf. Green 1987, 1993), but with some adjustments to optimize local resources (cf. Styles 2000). There is no evidence of venison trading or tribute found at this or any contemporaneous sites.     

Life and death at precolumbian Lavoutte,Saint Lucia,Lesser Antilles

Abstract

The Caribbean archaeological record requires immediate attention and protection. Development and natural forces have impacted archaeological sites, destroying or severely damaging them. The precolumbian site of Lavoutte, located in northern Saint Lucia, has been known as a major Late Ceramic Age (a.d. 1000–1500) settlement since the 1960s, but it has been damaged over the past decades by both natural and human processes. Multidisciplinary field and laboratory methodologies were implemented during a rescue project at the site from 2009 to 2010. This paper presents the results of collaborative efforts between local and international organizations. The first goal was to demonstrate the importance of protection and rescue of endangered archaeological sites. Secondly, we aimed to show that by adopting a multidisciplinary approach including artifact analysis, bioarchaeology, paleoenvironmental reconstruction, and geochemistry, severely damaged sites can be of significant informational value.     

Archaeological Survey of Dynamic Coastal Landscapes and Paleoshorelines: Locating Early Holocene Sites in the Prince Rupert Harbour Area,British Columbia,Canada

We present and test a predictive archaeological survey model that targets early Holocene paleoshorelines in the Prince Rupert Harbour area using LiDAR bare earth digital terrain models and a 15,000-year reconstructed history of relative sea level change. Despite a century of archaeological research in the study area, no sites dating earlier than 6000 cal b.p. had been identified prior to our research. Our field survey identified three early Holocene sites associated with paleoshorelines 7–10?m above current sea level (masl). These locations demonstrate repeated use through the Holocene even as shoreline position changes. We discuss these new data in relation to the early Holocene archaeological record from the rest of the northern Northwest Coast and suggest that the region was ubiquitously occupied by this time and that the lack of recorded early Holocene sites in some areas is likely a result of survey and preservation bias, rather than historical reality.     

Estimation of the Original Number of Individuals from Paired Bone Counts Using Estimators of the Krantz Type

Abstract

In 1968, G. S. Krantz proposed a method for estimating the original number of animals deposited at an archaeological site when bone counts have been reduced, whether by attritional processes or by a failure to find all the bones. His formula involved using the number of unmatched left, unmatched right, and matched pairs of a class of paired bone. In this paper we investigate estimators derived using Krantz's assumptions from both theoretical and practical viewpoints and make a number of recommendations; for example, that Krantz's estimators are useful only in relatively large assemblages. The method is applied to fish bones obtained from three sites in New Zealand, and practical difficulties with the procedure are described.     

Remote Sensing and Archaeological Prospection in Apulia,Italy

Abstract

When deployed in combination with ground control, archaeological surface survey, and environmental research, remote sensing based upon high-resolution multispectral satellite imagery allows large areas to be evaluated efficiently by a small team of researchers and contributes to a better understanding of an archaeological landscape. In 2007 and 2008, we analyzed ca. 100 sq km of imagery centered on L'Amastuola, Italy. Combining the evaluation of high-resolution multispectral imagery with concurrent ground control led to the discovery of 29 sites and significant off-site scatters during about four weeks of fieldwork. Our analysis indicates that most of the detected features reflect geological conditions amenable to past human habitation rather than subsurface archaeological remains. Earlier fieldwork by the Murge Tableland Survey (MTS) provided independent definitions for various types of sites and a large sample of sites and off-site scatters in the study area. Comparison of our remote-sensing guided efforts with the results of that survey suggests that our success rate is too high to be explained by random association and also illuminates the strengths and weaknesses of the respective methods, underscoring the need to integrate satellite image analysis with ground control and surface survey.     

The Use of Historical Photography For Mapping Archaeological Sites

Abstract

Aerial photography has been employed by archaeologists since 1906. This study discusses the application of image processing of historical photographs as an aid to archaeological excavations at two California mission sites.

Research on the Mission Vieja de la Purisima site involved the mapping of the Old Mission complex, destroyed by an earthquake and mudslide in 1812. Optical means of multiple-image registration and scale change were employed. The second study involved the digital transformation of an historical photograph of Mission San Buenaventura from its oblique perspective into a “psuedo-vertical” format.

Information obtained in these studies is being used by archaeological researchers and has been found accurate and extremely useful. The preliminary mapping of the Mission Vieja de la Purisima has aided in the preservation of the area and played a major role in the mission's being designated as a California and National Historical site.     

The Definition of Ancient Manured Zones by Means of Extensive Sherd-Sampling Techniques

Abstract

Thin carpets of worn and abraded sherds frequently occur over many square kilometers of ground around archaeological sites in the Middle East. Sherd scatters around three sites in Iran, Oman, and Syria are described. It is suggested that the artifacts arrive as a result of transport of compost or manure incorporating urban refuse from the city to the nearby fields. The sherd scatters occupy a zone of between 3 and 6 km. radius around the sites, and this belt, it is suggested, corresponds to the inner zone of intensive cultivation. The data presented give some empirical support to concepts of site-catchment analysis and also suggest that the use of manure in agriculture can be traced back to at least the 3rd millennium B.C.     

A Qualitative Approach for Assessment of the Burial Environment by Interpreting Soil Characteristics; A Necessity for Archaeological Monitoring

Abstract

Modern-day archaeological monitoring is often hampered by lack of money, lack of time, inadequate measuring equipment, and lack of insight in the conservation potential of a site.

Although in modern archaeological excavations soil characteristics are noted (colour, texture, groundwater level, and sometimes mineralogy), these characteristics are mainly used for the interpretation of a site. However, by looking to these characteristics from a conservational view eventually combined with the conservation status of the archaeological objects, much can be learned about the burial environment. This is essential for optimizing archaeological monitoring.

Degradation processes result from the change of reactive phases in the soil or the site. Reactive phases are soil components such as organic matter, sulfides, iron(hydr)oxides and carbonates (chalk, shells), and, if present, components in the ground or interstitial water such as hydrogen ions and sulphate. The presence of these phases can easily be established by the archaeologist or soil scientist in the field. We propose a simple field-based method for assessing degradation processes essential for in situ preservation and monitoring.     

Mapping the risk of damage from tree roots for the conservation of archaeological sites: the case of the Domus Aurea,Rome

Abstract

Damage caused by tree root growth to archaeological monuments buried underground, over the course of centuries, has been frequently reported in the city of Rome. The Domus Aurea, Nero's Imperial residence, now lies under the Horti Traianei (Trajan's Park) on the Oppian hill. These gardens, planted at the beginning of the last century, are located only 3–4m above the surviving archaeological structures. In some cases roots have damaged the underlying vaults, sometimes creating serious structural problems. Results of the study show that a variety of species with strong root systems growing for many metres laterally, and to depths of several metres, are present. Identification of the plants responsible for the damage has been achieved through a study of the anatomy of their wood. A real and potential assessment of the risk posed by tree roots to the archaeological structures has been attempted. The data collected will contribute to evaluating the risk to monuments under similar conditions and will also help to avoid errors made in managing the plant cover of archaeological sites     

Editorial Introduction

Abstract

International response to the problem of looting of archaeological sites has been hampered by the difficulty of quantifying the damage done. The scarcity of reliable information negatively impacts professional and public policy making, rendering consensus about the scale of the problem and the effectiveness of policy responses difficult to achieve. We report here on the use of publicly-available satellite imagery for quantifying the damage caused by looting of archaeological sites in Jordan. The ease of use and affordability of imagery such as that provided by Google Earth make the identification, quantification, and monitoring of archaeological site looting possible at a level previously unimagined. Our findings about looting at archaeological sites in Jordan shed light on the potential for a broader application of the method.