Towards a typology of stone beads in the Neolithic Levant

Abstract

This study is an attempt to develop a comprehensive typology of the earliest stone bead assemblages in the southern Levant from Late Natufian and Neolithic sites. I propose this typology as a tool for studying stone beads almost a century after Horace Beck published his monumental bead typology. Beads are often neglected artifacts in archaeological excavations, but a bead typology can contribute to definitions of relative chronology and to a broader understanding of social and economic aspects of certain prehistoric societies.     

Account of an Informed Bat Exclusion at the Temple of Deir el-Shelwit,Luxor, Egypt

Abstract

The conservation of the painted Roman-era reliefs in the temple of Deir el Shelwit in Luxor, Egypt, was recently initiated by the American Research Center in Egypt (ARCE). As a critical step in a series of preliminary preventive conservation measures undertaken at the temple, a resident bat colony was excluded to control further deterioration of the painted reliefs and stone fabric (Figure 1). In consultation with a bat biologist, a comprehensive humane, low-tech emergency exclusion programme was designed and implemented, which included roost location, behavioural surveys, species identification, sealing of building openings, bat exclusion and the design of an alternate roost site. This programme may serve as a useful example for other conservation projects in Luxor, since it provides much-needed information on the behaviour of local bats, as well as relevant insights gained from the exclusion procedure.     

Structural and Technical Change in the Aberdeen Granite Quarrying Industry 1830–1880

Abstract

Beginning with a brief analysis of the role of the railways in the extension of the frontier line of quarrying westwards from the city of Aberdeen in the 1850s, this article examines the major technical changes that occurred in granite quarrying particularly between 1865 and 1880. With the deepening of the workings, raising the stone to the surface became more difficult and was overcome gradually by the introduction of horses, steam cranes and Blondins. The pace of innovation was slow and it was primarily the larger concerns that invested quickly in the new technology. The paper then looks at the widening markets for stone, occasioned by railway bridge and viaduct construction and, more importantly, the rise of granite manufacturing in Aberdeen with its emphasis on building and monumental masonry, a development of long term importance. Finally it is shown that, as in the eighteenth century, the sources of capital, entrepreneurship and labour were mainly local in origin and the impact of quarrying on rural communities is assessed.     

From Langford to South Cerney: The Rood in Anglo-Norman England

Abstract

Two fragments of a figure of Christ crucified from South Cerney parish church comprise the sole survivor of a Romanesque wooden Rood with an English provenance. This paper argues that it is an example of a Triumphkreuz originally located at the chancel arch of South Cerney church and seeks to establish its relationship to both pre-Conquest monumental stone Rood sculpture and wooden Triumphkreuze in northern Europe and Scandinavia. The Triumphkreuz appears to have been a standard feature of the greater churches of Norman England, but how common it was in post-Conquest parish churches is less clear. While church dedications suggest that devotion to the Holy Cross was particularly strong in south-west England, late-11th- and 12th-century mural painting and sculpture of chancel arches in parish churches over a wide area exhibit a close connection with the Rood.     

Structural preservation of the Temple of the Oracle in Siwa Oasis,Egypt

Abstract

The Oracle of Siwa, in the Libyan Desert, was one of the important cult sites in the classical period. For almost 1000 years the oracle was a place of pilgrimage, famous especially because of the visit of Alexander the Great in 332 BC. The temple itself was dedicated to the Egyptian god Amun and was constructed by Greek architects using alternating courses of solid binders and stretcher courses of massive limestone slabs enclosing a rubble-mortar core. Throughout its 2500-year history the temple complex was used by various groups for different purposes.

Situated near the rim of a hill the temple itself was threatened by continuous erosion of the hill slopes. During the first visit in 1993 it was decided to undertake immediate structural preservation of the critical parts of the building. In 1994 a reversible temporary reinforcement of the northern wall was applied. This was done in order to make future interventions more secure. Early during the damage assessment, the need for an extensive reinforcement of the bedrock was discussed. Before critical interventions took place the site was fully surveyed. Due to the high salt content of the anhydrite mortar and the building stone the interventions were carried out with a minimum of water. In the course of three campaigns in 1997, 1998 and 1999, the northern, the western and the opposite southern walls were reinforced by pre-stressed stainless steel anchors and secured by anchor plates. In 1999 the fissures and cracks of the bedrock were grouted with gunned concrete. The temple should be structurally stable for the next hundred years, but the problems of nonstructural decay of the walls have still to be addressed.     

Boole Reviews

Abstract

The roof of the Archaic Temple of Poseidon (early 7th century B.C.) at the Sanctuary of Poseidon on the Corinthian Isthmus in Greece was covered by unusually large terracotta tiles. The construction of a stone temple with a tile roof represented a major advance in building design. The tiles themselves are representative of the growth in technology at that time. Reproduction of the tiles was recently undertaken as a demonstration of the tools, skills, and manpower requirements of the new technology. It is shown here that a relatively small group of men using local materials could make all of the tiles and the kiln(s) to fire them in less than two years. The major innovation was the design of the mold.     

New Titanium Connectors for the Columns Capitals of the Classical Temple of Apollo Epikourios

The columns of monumental buildings in ancient Greece were provided with a pair of timber “empolia” (plugs) and a “pole” (pin), at interfaces between stone members (drums, capital). In order to reinstate this connection system, in columns capitals that were repaired, during the ongoing restoration of the classical temple of Apollo Epikourios (Greece), new poles and empolia made of titanium were installed. The titanium elements were designed to have similar shape and shear strength to the estimated respective characteristics of the ancient poles and empolia. Moreover, their effect on the seismic behaviour of the temple columns was numerically investigated. The investigation showed that, within the range of strong earthquakes which are anticipated in the area of the monument, the installation of a single pole at the interface between the capital and the uppermost drum leads to limited reduction of the expected maximum and residual deformations of the column, without altering significantly the main characteristics of its rocking response. Furthermore, poles located at every column interface ensures significant limitation of the column residual deformations. Prior to implementation of the titanium poles and empolia, the main aspects of their design were verified through specially designed experiments.     

Middens,Construction Fill,and Offerings: Evidence for the Organization of Classic Period Craft Production at Tikal,Guatemala

Abstract

The production of artifacts of stone, shell, and bone at Tikal, an important center in the Southern Maya Lowlands, created quantities of durable waste, referred to as debitage. Yet debitage is not a reliable indicator of production area because of the spatially flexible nature of Prehispanic technology and site-maintenance activities that shifted manufacturing debris into secondary contexts. Nevertheless, debitage, even in secondary context, provides important information on the organization of craft production at Tikal, particularly during the Classic Period (ca. A.C. 250–850). Most crafts were organized as household industries, carried on by independent, part-time specialists living in the central area that surrounded the monumental core of the city. The elite probably supported some full-time production to satisfy their demands for status goods and tools for construction projects. Expedient production by nonspecialists, using locally available materials such as chert and bone, occurred at all times.

Production waste was recovered from the construction fill of public and residential architecture and from household middens, mixed with domestic trash. The largest concentrations, however, were found exterior to elite chamber burials and within cached offerings. The delayed identification of debitage from ritual contexts exemplifies the reflexive nature of the way archaeologists classify material culture and their interpretations of the contexts from which it is recovered.     

Towards a Definition of the pre-Classical Phoenician Temple

ABSTRACT

Though our knowledge of Iron Age Phoenician cultic architecture is quite limited, the available data suggests that pre-Classical Phoenician temples followed a similar plan which displayed several unique architectural features. This plan originated from a long held, Bronze Age, Canaanite tradition which became especially prominent along the northern Levantine coast from the Middle Bronze Age II, appearing alongside other temple plans. This article aims to demonstrate that during the Iron Age and most of the Persian period, this temple plan became the predominant temple type in Phoenicia and its dependencies. It was only during the late Persian period, that a drastic change occurred, and this millennia-old plan was abandoned in favor of other temple types. Nevertheless, it appears that despite this seemingly radical change, the most notable feature of the traditional plan was preserved.     

Antiquarian Intelligence

Abstract

A survey was carried out of the stone types of the south porch of Gloucester Cathedral, repaired in 1992. Although very little of the medieval fabric remained, much information emerged about the types of stone used in the 19th century, and the building materials of the original south porch could also be established. The work formed the basis of most present knowledge about the past use of stone at Gloucester Cathedral.     

Domus Willisi: A Neuro‐Architectural Tour*

Abstract

Fifteen sites in England today can be identified with Dr. Thomas Willis, the Oxford physician and anatomist, who was the founder of neurology. Four of these were domiciles; Beam Hall, where Willis and his colleagues met to study the brain and nerves, can be claimed as the first Neurological Institute. The last dwelling place of Willis is Westminster Abbey, where in 1961 his memorial stone was renewed by neurologists and neurosurgeons. Part of this original stone marks the new Brain Imaging Centre at the Montreal Neurological Institute, where the name of Thomas Willis shares a place in the Hall of Neurological Fame.     

An Umm an‐Nar culture stone bas‐relief from Al‐Qutainah,Sultanate of Oman

The Al‐Qutainah stone with its bas‐relief decoration was found in a secondary position, reused through time. The object is clearly a facing stone, originally part of an Umm an‐Nar period tomb, and was subsequently repeatedly reused for making new engravings. While working out the sequence of images it became clear that the very first image was a pair of human figures. This artwork is associated to grave architecture and therefore dates to the Umm an‐Nar period. Two models of interpretation can be suggested, the image of a human pair or the image of a supplicant and deity. Changes in the original meaning of the image indicate conceptual changes in subsequent periods, most probably alterations in the underlying social structure. The importance of the Qutainah stone is not solely due to rare monumental human figurative expression of the period in Oman; furthermore, the find spot in the Adam region is at a distance from the central location of Umm an‐Nar culture that has so far emerged.     

Genesis 38: The Search for Progeny and Heir

The construction of a second temple of Yahweh in Jerusalem during the early Achaemenid period is usually attributed to the religious fervor of ethnic Yehudite immigrants from Babylon. The general shape of reconstructions of this period most often follows the general outline of the events given in Ezra 1-6. According to this model, there were two attempts to build the temple, a first attempt in the reign of Cyrus and a second attempt in the reign of Darius. This paper proposes an alternative reconstruction, placing the entire construction project in the reign of Darius and attributing the primary motivation for the project to the needs of the Persian imperial administration rather than Yehudite religious sentiments.     

News and Short Contributions

Abstract

Muralla de Leon is a dry stone wall construction on an elevated plateau NE of Lake Macanche, in the central portion of the Department of Peten, Guatemala. Surrounded by water on three sides, the wall attains a maximum height of 4 m. and has a perimeter of 1.4 km. Twenty-one structures are located inside the wall, their construction spanning the Terminal Preclassic through the Postclassic periods. Most interesting are quantities of Floral Park Protoclassic materials as well as a Postclassic “temple assemblage” inside the wall. Problems associated with dating the fortification are discussed, and processes that may have contributed to the construction and occupation of the Muralla de Leon site are reviewed. The times of apparent construction and occupation of the Muralla de Leon area suggest the possibility of a broader role of conflict in the evolution of Maya civilization during the Protoclassic period than previously recognized, and illuminate the role of warfare in the interrelationships of Postclassic communities in the Central Peten.     

Integrated Design of Conservation of the Archaeological Heritage

Abstract

This article aims to establish a connection between (a) the identification of heritage and measures for its protection, and (b) the collection and dissemination of scientific information, as set out in the Treaty of Valletta. This is illustrated through research conducted at the Asklepieion of Kos, which led to an anastylosis project on the Roman temple, within a wider project to re-organize the entire area of the sanctuary. The paper highlights the development of the project, including traditional methods of direct survey (manual and digital), a database of the three-dimension models of the single architectural elements of the temple, and a CAD/CAM model of the reconstruction project.     

Analytical methods for the conservation of the Buddhist temple II of Krasnaya Rechka,Kyrgyzstan

Abstract

The methods employed for selecting the repair material for the Buddhist temple II of Krasnaya Rechka, a site located in the upper Chuy Valley, Kyrgyzstan, are described in this article. The temple is built of mud brick and was excavated during several campaigns between 1938 and 1998 with no provision being made for conservation. The first emergency protective measures were initiated in 2003 during a UNESCO project that included other sites located in the Chuy valley. Most of the eroded walls of the temple were given a temporary shelter coat of mud bricks, a method that has proved effective. The main problem after proving the shelter coat was how to assess the repair material for future conservation work (it is planned to repeat the application of the shelter coat, but with materials with improved performance). Assessment was carried out after extensive laboratory analysis of both historic and repair materials, but also after test wall construction and monitoring. The methods explained here could be of use to conservators working in similar projects in the Middle East or Asia.     

Isaiah 1,4–9, Isaiah,and the events of 701 BCE in Judah

Abstract

The title of this paper points to the relationship between the Israelite cult as cultural performance and current trends in modern interpretation of the Psalms. The first part includes a review of the wellknown “spiritualisation” of cultic language which is compared to a new approach that describes this phenomenon as a “transformation” of cultic patterns. The second part intents to demonstrate how such transformations could have worked. The “liturgical” text of Ps 24 may serve as an eloquent example of this. Here, a fragment from the ancient temple cult is quoted in order to demonstrate the close connection between the secrets of the inner temple and everyday life. Ps 24 now appears to be an erudite text used for educational purposes.     

Fuel Fodder and Faeces: An Ethnographic and Botanical Study of Dung Fuel Use in Central Anatolia

Abstract

The Norse inhabited Greenland between AD 1000 and AD 1500 and, toward the end of the occupation, according to archaeological evidence, they were predominately marine mammal hunters. Despite the fact that marine resources became important for subsistence, the Norse Greenlanders settled the area in o?der to farm. This is indicated by site locations, faunal material, archaeobotanical, and palynological evidence.

Phytolith analysis from a quern stone, likely made from stone of local origin, found at Gården Under Sandet, a Norse farmstead in Greenland, was examined to determine if there was any evidence indicating domestic cereal processing. The phytoliths found on the quern stone can be associated with grasses and sedges, but the absence of dendritic phytoliths likely indicates that the quern stone was not used to grind seed. This preliminary study demonstrates that information about Norse agriculture may be obtained by examining the phytolith remains from a quern stone.     

Exploring the season of mound building through oxygen isotope geochemistry at the Garden Patch site,Gulf Coast Florida,USA

ABSTRACT

The American Southeast saw the development of large ceremonial village centers, the coalescence of households, and monumental architecture integrated into village layout during the Middle Woodland period (ca. AD 1–600). These shifts toward more sedentary lifeways occurred independently of, and prior to, the domestication of plants across the Southeast. This paper examines the seasonality of monumental construction at the Garden Patch site located on the central Gulf Coast of Florida. This site contains evidence for rapid mound construction that followed a predetermined site plan. Here, we present oxygen isotope analyses of archaeological mollusk shells (Crassostrea virginica) to evaluate the seasonality and periodicity of monument construction. We conclude that mound construction occurred during the cooler months of the year. Ultimately, this contributes to an anthropological understanding of the development of these early ceremonial centers in the Southeast.     

Visibility Graph Analysis and Monumentality in the Iron Age City at Kerkenes in Central Turkey

Abstract

This paper investigates symmetry and visualization at two monumental gateways excavated in the late 7th–6th centuries b.c. Phrygian city on Mount Kerkenes (Turkish: Kerkenes Da?) in central Turkey. One of these, the Cappadocia Gate, is one of seven city gates piercing the 7 km stone-built defenses; the other is the Monumental Entrance to the Palatial Complex. We use visibility graph analysis (VGA), a branch of space syntax analysis, and viewshed isovists to demonstrate that a similar visual and symbolic conception underlay the design and furnishing of these two gates. Both were conceived to signal different messages to people entering and exiting the gates, and both manipulated the visibility of cultic statuary to achieve this effect. Other contemporaneous monuments, like the Midas Monument in the Phrygian Highlands, shared many of the same principles. VGA reveals fundamental characteristics of the experience of Phrygian monumental architecture and also indicates a degree of city planning.