Oil in the Arctic 1. Historical,Environmental and Regional Perspectives

Abstract

An ecologist's point of view of the historical, scientific and social background to the Alaskan pipeline and offshore oil is presented ranging over many discipline and their close interplay. Starting with a deep concern about the protection of the Arctic's unique environment and the oil industry's impact upon it, the work of the Alaska Conservation Society is reviewed. The lack of biological information about Alaska's hinterland made environmental surveillance of the pipeline difficult. The political conflict between State and Federal authorities has hindered scientific effort and the author concludes that the outlook of this many-faceted interdisciplinary impact of technology on the Arctic and Alaska is at present uncertain.     

The New Economics of North American Arctic Oil

Over the past five years there has been a remarkable resurgence in oil and gas exploration in the North American Arctic. From completed disinterest only a half a decade ago the region has attracted billions of dollars in new investments from a host of different international oil companies. Unlike the past booms in the region, which inevitably ended in busts, this new wave of development is different. This article examines the changes in both the Arctic itself as well as the global energy environment and concludes that the North American Arctic will see slow bust sustained development over the coming decades, ultimately becoming one of the last great oil producing regions in the world.     

The Arctic in the middle ages

The rather sparse and dubious data about Arctic regions known to Antiquity were taken over, mostly via Pliny, by the middle ages and reinforced and expanded in significant ways. This paper, which was delivered as an Inaugural Lecture at the University of Groningen in November 1982, reviews the activities and reports of medieval explorers, colonists and traders in or about the Arctic and considers the handful of medieval writers who display some real knowledge about Arctic regions. The generality of medieval writers on history and geography knew little or nothing. Even so, it is shown that here and there references are made to many of the features which are thought of as typically Arctic in the modern popular consciousness, with the exception of igloos and muskoxen. Commercial connections with the Arctic through Novgorod and Bergen are examined, and some account given of contacts with Iceland and the disappearance of the Norse settlement in Greenland. Polar bears and white falcons in western Europe, both of nearly indisputable Arctic origin, are discussed, attention is drawn to the very inadequate portrayal of the Arctic on medieval maps, and the paper closes with a glance at Olaus Magnus's account of northern peoples published in 1555.     

The Arctic in the middle ages

The rather sparse and dubious data about Arctic regions known to Antiquity were taken over, mostly via Pliny, by the middle ages and reinforced and expanded in significant ways. This paper, which was delivered as an Inaugural Lecture at the University of Groningen in November 1982, reviews the activities and reports of medieval explorers, colonists and traders in or about the Arctic and considers the handful of medieval writers who display some real knowledge about Arctic regions. The generality of medieval writers on history and geography knew little or nothing. Even so, it is shown that here and there references are made to many of the features which are thought of as typically Arctic in the modern popular consciousness, with the exception of igloos and muskoxen. Commercial connections with the Arctic through Novgorod and Bergen are examined, and some account given of contacts with Iceland and the disappearance of the Norse settlement in Greenland. Polar bears and white falcons in western Europe, both of nearly indisputable Arctic origin, are discussed, attention is drawn to the very inadequate portrayal of the Arctic on medieval maps, and the paper closes with a glance at Olaus Magnus's account of northern peoples published in 1555.     

The Politics of Environmental Risk: Perceptions of Risk Assessment in the State Legislatures

As state governments increasingly turn to the process of quantitative risk assessment to set environmental policy, the question of what state lawmakers know and believe about risk and the risk assessment process has become critical. The perceptions of state legislators may affect their decisions about a wide range of environmental conflicts, from funding water treatment facilities to siting hazardous waste incinerators. This article reports the results of a nationwide survey of state legislators and their staff that explored their intuitive understanding of environmental risk and risk assessment. The survey revealed strong support for the use of risk assessment by most state lawmakers, but significant differences, by gender and political affiliation, in perceptions of the risks from chemicals, the value of risk assessment for setting environmental policies, and the environmental risks faced by racial minorities.     

State Expenditures and Policy Outcomes in Environmental Program Management

Comparative state environmental research seeks to explain the factors contributing to intergovernmental environmental management. In pursuing the answer to this query, researchers have relied on either fiscal (expenditures) or nonfiscal (ranking) measures of state environmental effort. Respecting the debate surrounding state policy outputs and fiscal versus nonfiscal measures, we evaluate comprehensive state environmental management comparing spending and ranking measures in our analysis. Though pronounced differences do exist between the two models, we find pollution and state size to be the primary factors affecting a state's environmental effort no matter which measure is used.     

20世纪60年代美国“青年领袖项目”初探

20世纪60年代,随着冷战扩展到整个第三世界,美国更加关注亚非拉国家第二、三代青年领袖的重要作用。肯尼迪执政时期,美国政府着手整合各部门各自推行的争取第三世界青年领袖的项目,并最终完成了"青年领袖项目"的政策规划和机构建制。同美国心理战的总体战略目标一致,"青年领袖项目"亦致力于赢得目标群体,使其选择亲美反共的道路,并影响其所在国家的政治走向。尽管投入巨大的人力和物力,"青年领袖项目"在肯尼迪和约翰逊政府时期并未见明显成效,但美国对第三世界青年进行的意识形态输出和文化灌输活动,最终对第三世界国家的道路选择产生了深刻的影响。     

扎营苔原

正格陵兰航空的飞机清一色地浑身涂成醒目的猩红色。后来我们发现,在这一片银白色世界里,这样做实在是很聪明。高空之中,能见度很低。直到飞机下降到550米时,透过舷窗,白底黑痕的冰原和山丘方才依稀可辨。康克鲁斯瓦格是格陵兰岛唯一可起降大型飞机的入口,机场和跑道原是美军建立,后来以一个美元的对价归还了当地政府。步下舷梯,迎接我们的是幽幽飘落的大片雪花和降至冰点的气温。     

探索北极世界中的生命 13天北极游随行笔记摘选

<正>飞行在几千米高的北极上空,透过机舱舷窗俯瞰,看着厚厚白雪覆盖下连绵的黑色山脊上,这才真正感受到地球最北之地的瑰丽。一眼望去,只有蓝得让人窒息的天空和纯洁的白雪,一切如此安静。下了飞机,踏上位于北极圈内的斯瓦尔巴群岛首府朗伊尔城,终于,我来到了北极。     

扎营苔原

<正>格陵兰航空的飞机清一色地浑身涂成醒目的猩红色。后来我们发现,在这一片银白色世界里,这样做实在是很聪明。高空之中,能见度很低。直到飞机下降到550米时,透过舷窗,白底黑痕的冰原和山丘方才依稀可辨。康克鲁斯瓦格是格陵兰岛唯一可起降大型飞机的入口,机场和跑道原是美军建立,后来以一个美元的对价归还了当地政府。步下舷梯,迎接我们的是幽幽飘落的大片雪花和降至冰点的气温。     

探索北极世界中的生命 13天北极游随行笔记摘选

<正>飞行在几千米高的北极上空,透过机舱舷窗俯瞰,看着厚厚白雪覆盖下连绵的黑色山脊上,这才真正感受到地球最北之地的瑰丽。一眼望去,只有蓝得让人窒息的天空和纯洁的白雪,一切如此安静。下了飞机,踏上位于北极圈内的斯瓦尔巴群岛首府朗伊尔城,终于,我来到了北极。     

探索北极世界中的生命

作为摄影顾问,我参加了天霞客组织的北极包船游,从朗伊尔城乘坐海洋精灵号SeaSpirit号开始为期13天12晚的精彩北极邮轮之旅.虽然看上去是北极邮轮之旅,但和大家常规意义上所了解的邮轮之旅完全不同,因为在北极地带,每天最精华最刺激的活动安排就是全副武装乘坐登陆艇来到斯瓦尔巴群岛或者格陵兰岛的陆地上,在专业自然向导团队的带领下开始徒步探索北极世界,每一次行程可长可短,根据体力以及天气等情况而定.因此,北极邮轮之旅真正享受的不是硬件的豪华,而是北极的壮观美景以及精彩的动物世界.     

北洋时期公司制度建设的外在制约因素

北洋政府时期,中国社会资本严重短缺,极大地限制了国内投资的幅度与力度,使公司制度建设出现极度“贫血”现象。科技落后导致技术对资本的吸附力不强,制约了中国企业的资本密集度,使公司制度建设动力不足。北洋时期,政治建设并未渐入佳境,官方任意践踏法律之事时有发生。政权或军权对企业产权的强制性安排,使股东或企业权益受到侵害。政权的庇护助长了经济特权,破坏了经济建设领域的公平与公正,各种“苛税”、“恶税”又极大地加重了企业的经营负担。时局不靖,兵燹迭现,使人心惶恐,无暇顾及实业,公司制度建设“亦即因之停顿”。此外,国人公司意识滞后,“缺乏企业心与投资心”等也是制约这一时期公司制度建设成效的重要因素。