Mid 17th- and 19th-century English wine bottles with seals in London’s archaeological collections

Abstract

This article details work which has, for the first time, delivered a comprehensive catalogue of 17th- and 19th-century dated English glass bottles with applied seals derived from archaeological excavations in London by MOLA (Museum of London Archaeology) and its predecessors. This text introduces the cataloguing methodology employed, reviews the historiography of bottle seal studies and summarizes the survey results. We consider, among other issues, the context and parallels behind individual seal designs, their chronologies, geographies of their movement and spaces of use in early Modern London.     

MEDIEVAL GLASS FROM ROCCA DI ASOLO (NORTHERN ITALY): AN ARCHAEOMETRIC STUDY

An archaeometric study was performed on 33 medieval glass samples from Rocca di Asolo (northern Italy), in order to study the raw materials employed in their production, identify analogies with medieval glass from the Mediterranean area and possible relationships between chemical composition and type and/or production technique, contextualize the various phases of the site and extend data on Italian medieval glass. The samples are soda–lime–silica in composition, with natron as flux for early medieval glasses and soda ash for the high and late medieval ones. Compositional groups were identified, consistent with the major compositional groups identified in the western Mediterranean during the first millennium AD . In particular, Asolo natron glass is consistent with the HIMT group and recycled Roman glass; soda ash glass was produced with the same type of flux (Levantine ash) but a different silica source (siliceous pebbles, and more or less pure sand). Cobalt was the colouring agent used to obtain blue glass; analytical data indicate that at least two different sources of Co were exploited during the late medieval period. Some data, analytical and historical, suggest a Venetian provenance for the high/late medieval glass and a relationship between type of object (beaker or bottle) and chemical composition.     

The colourless glass of Iulia Felix

The present paper focuses on 85 colourless glass samples selected among the recycling cullet found in the Roman ship Iulia Felix, wrecked off the town of Grado (province of Udine, North Italy) in the first half of the 3rd century AD, with the aim of examining their chemical composition, investigating similarities within and between the three established group types (cups, plates, bottles), and comparing the chemical compositions of the Iulia Felix glass samples with groups reported in the literature for colourless glasses. Chemical analyses, performed by X-ray fluorescence and electron microprobe, indicate that the samples were all soda-lime–silica in composition, with natron as flux, according to typical Roman production technologies. Chemical data are treated by multivariate statistical tools, such as cluster analysis and the NPC test. Statistical analyses allow us to conclude that the Iulia Felix colourless glasses were produced by at least two different production technologies related to group type, confirming the trend recently identified in the literature. In addition, the trace element patterns (particularly those of Sr, Zr and Ba) suggest that beach sand with differing amounts of alkali feldspars was predominantly used as raw material, like those specifically mentioned by Pliny for glass production.     

Wine Bottles From Lisbon: Archaeometric Studies Of Two Archaeological Sites Dated From The 17th To The 19th Century

Two sets of wine bottles dated between the end of the 17th and the 19th centuries were characterized by means of μ‐PIXE (major and minor elements) and LA–ICP–MS (trace and REE elements). The fragmented wine bottles were recovered from two archaeological contexts in Lisbon and reach a total of 79 fragments. One of the archaeological bottle sets comes from a house structure that collapsed during the major earthquake in 1755, providing a precise terminus ante quem. The second set comes from the exploratory archaeological intervention performed in Rua do Arsenal, where the Côrte‐Real Palace (built in the 16th century), was discovered. From this site, posterior contexts dated up to the 19th century were considered. This systematic study allowed the glass to be identified as high‐lime, low‐alkali (HLLA) for all the considered chronologies. However, the 19th‐century bottles have a different HLLA composition, suggesting the use of synthetic soda. Comparison with data from literature showed some similarity with English, Belgium and French reported compositions. This is the first systematic attempt to characterize the composition of glass wine bottles circulating in Portugal, giving new insights into their probable provenances, and on the exchange between Portugal and its trading allies.     

The glass of Nogara (Verona): a “window” on production technology of mid-Medieval times in Northern Italy

The site of Nogara (province of Verona, Italy) provides valuable insights into the complexities of the glass industry in mid-Medieval times, due to its timing, which ranges mainly between the 10th and 11th centuries AD, and to the great quantity of glass findings, mainly tableware. In the present paper, the combination of archaeological, chemical and textural data allows us to identify production technologies in a time-interval perceived to be a period of technological transition for glass. In particular, the frequent occurrence of recycled natron glass and only a few glass samples made with soda plant ash indicate that recycling of earlier glass was common in inland Northern Italy in the 10th–11th centuries AD. In addition, blue and reticello decorations were obtained by recycling earlier glass mosaic tesserae, as shown by much Co, Cu, Sn, Sb and Pb and the presence of crystallised calcium antimonates. A few glass samples with chemical compositions intermediate between natron and soda plant ash glass were also identified, suggesting a gradual change in glass composition from natron-based towards soda ash-based production technology, which prevailed in the 13th-14th centuries. In conclusion, the difficulty in describing mid-Medieval glass as a well-defined entity, due to the great propensity for recycling earlier glass samples which causes variability in chemical compositions, particularly those of trace elements, is clearly documented here. In any case, this paper contributes to a new type of chrono-typological scanning and to more detailed knowledge of glass production technology during mid-Medieval times in Northern Italy, little found in the literature until now.     

The coloured glass of Iulia Felix

Research on the cargo of glass in the Roman ship Iulia Felix, wrecked off the town of Grado (province of Udine, North Italy) in the first half of the 3rd century AD and composed of recycling cullet carefully selected for colour and type, provided much information on Roman glass production technology. A combined approach, involving analytical, statistical, and archaeological evidence, included chemical analyses (X-ray fluorescence, electron microprobe), which indicated that the coloured samples were all soda-lime-silica in composition, with natron as flux, although cluster analysis identified many compositional groups. Comparisons among the compositional groups of the colourless glass, previously studied, and those of coloured glass showed that the production technologies of the colourless glass vessels constitute two well-defined technological end-members, also related to group types, into which those of the coloured glass samples fall. In particular, coloured glass samples—all bottles, low-status vessels—were produced with mainly beach siliceous-feldspar-calcareous sand. However, unlike the colourless type, strict control of raw materials and decolourising processes was not adopted, and recycling was also practised, as demonstrated by the Sb₂O₃, Cu and Pb patterns. In this context, a “recycling index” (RI)—[(Sb₂O₃)_X/(Sb₂O₃)_Ref] * 100—is proposed here for the first time, in order to quantify the extent of recycling of antimony colourless glass in the batch. RI is valid for glass containing abundant Sb from an end-member of colourless glass. In conclusion, although it cannot be stated unequivocally that the identified compositional trends are related to different production centres or different raw materials, the strong evidence of compositional variability among all the Iulia Felix glass samples, both colourless and coloured, supports the dispersed production model for Roman glassware and the common practice of recycling in Roman imperial times, especially for low-status vessels.     

The finds from the cellar of the Old Hall,Temple Balsall,Warwickshire

Abstract

The cellar, excavated in 1981, revealed late 17th and early 18th century material, which is the subject of this report. The pottery included yellow wares, English delftware, blackware, manganese-mottled wares, stonewares, slipware and coarseware. Tobacco pipes, medicine phials, table glass, wine bottles, bones and iron-work were also found. The excavation report will be published separately.¹ Ex inf. Paul Woodfield.     

CHARACTERIZATION AND PROVENANCE OF LATE ANTIQUE WINDOW GLASS FROM THE PETRA CHURCH IN JORDAN*

Fifth‐ to seventh‐century window glass fragments from the Petra Church in Jordan were analysed by EPMA and spectrophotometry to characterize their optical properties and chemical composition. The objective of this study was to determine the provenance of the raw glass and the secondary production procedures of the window‐panes. Judging from the material evidence, both the crown window‐panes and possibly the rectangular samples were produced through glass‐blowing techniques. The chemical data show that the assemblage forms a homogeneous group of soda–lime–silica glass of the Levantine I type. The green glass, however, has higher silica and lower soda contents than the aqua‐blue fragments. The composition of one sample suggested the recycling of Roman glass. Our results confirm the trade of glass between the Levantine coast and Petra during Late Antiquity. No colouring agents other than iron were detected. Spectrophotometry confirmed the presence of iron and showed that the window fragments absorbed light relatively equally across the visible part of the spectrum. The windows thus seem to have provided an almost colourless illumination for the sacred interior.     

Percival,Vickers & Co. Ltd: The Archaeology of a 19th-Century Manchester Flint Glass Works

Abstract

The Percival, Vickers & Co. Ltd glass works was amongst the largest glass manufactories in Manchester, and formed one of a regionally significant group of 19th-century glass works in the Ancoats district of the city. All of these works have since been demolished, and the paucity of surviving physical and documentary evidence is in stark contrast to the former importance of the city's glass-making industry. The Percival, Vickers site was recently subjected to a detailed archaeological investigation ahead of redevelopment, providing a unique opportunity to study the buried remains of a 19th-century glass works. In particular, variation in the design of the furnaces provided evidence for the technological development of the later 19th century, which has not otherwise been documented. Additionally, some 110kg of glass fragments recovered from the site furnished important evidence for the composition of 19th-century glass, although the results are beyond the scope of the present paper, which focuses on the documented history, structural, and technological elements of the site.     

Eighteenth-century wheel-engraved glassware from Lisbon

Abstract

Glass finds from Lisbon are discussed in the light of the Bohemian production of wheel-engraved glass in the 18th century. Archaeological parallels are quoted from Bohemia, the Netherlands, Canada and the USA, and intact specimens in museums in Portugal and the United Kingdom are also taken into consideration. Finally, the results of the first detailed chemical analysis of glassware excavated in Portugal are presented.     

营城子汉墓出土玻璃耳珰的化学成分与制作工艺研究

营城子汉墓位于辽宁省大连市甘井子区,是我国东北地区一处重要的大型汉墓群。营城子汉墓出土了一批玻璃耳珰,为探讨其成型工艺及来源,采用超景深显微系统进行了表面形貌观察,初步认为是模铸成型,并经过打磨。采用便携式X射线荧光光谱仪(XRF)进行了化学成分分析,结果显示,它们分属铅钡硅酸盐和钾硅酸盐玻璃系统,一件由Cu²⁺着色,其余主要由Co²⁺着色。其为我国自制,所用钴料来源相同,钴料的锰钴比特征与国产钴土矿的类似。并对营城子汉墓出土玻璃耳珰造型与化学成分体系间的关系进行了分析,对玻璃耳珰制作模式进行了初步探讨,进一步加深了对我国古代玻璃耳珰制作与传播的认识。     

盈寸纤研 伦敦大英博物馆与华莱氏博物馆藏鼻烟壶鉴赏

15世纪末,航海家哥伦布把美洲印地安土著的烟草与吸闻鼻烟的习俗带回欧洲。而后十余年间,吸闻鼻烟迅速成为西班牙和法国宫廷的时尚,传统吸食烟斗的方式逐渐沦为下等阶层的象征。16世纪末,意大利传教士朝贡鼻烟,大获明万历皇帝赏识,从此舶来品—鼻烟在中国落地生根。17世纪60年代,当23岁的法王路易十四登基17年后终于亲政,开始引领＂中国风＂装饰,大规模采购中国瓷器、家具装饰凡尔赛宫时,英国王子查理二世结束九年的流亡生涯,回英即位。这位游历欧洲、精通艺术的皇帝把很多法国上流社会的习俗带回英国。     

Glassmaking in Bagot’s Park,Staffordshire, in the 16th Century

Abstract

Out of 15 glass-making sites found in Bagot’s Park during land reclamation, one, Site 4, was left for examination. Two furnaces were excavated; the larger was for the melting of glass in six crucibles, and was typical of late medieval English practice, being built of brick and stone with a clay dome; it was the first to be excavated with clear evidence of an all-over timber and tile roof. The second, built partly of brick, was for annealing. The main product was Crown window glass; the amount of Broad glass and vessel found was insufficient to say with certainty that they were made on the site.

Archaeological evidence supported by documentary references suggested that the site was in use in the early 16th century, well before the agreement of 1585 between the Bagots and the Lorrainer Henzey family. Such evidence of glass production in this period suggests that the weakness of the English glass industry before 1567 may have been exaggerated.     

THE COMPOSITION AND MANUFACTURE OF EARLY MEDIEVAL COLOURED WINDOW GLASS FROM SION (VALAIS,SWITZERLAND)—A ROMAN GLASS‐MAKING TRADITION OR INNOVATIVE CRAFTSMANSHIP?*

Archaeological excavations between 1984 and 2001 at the early Christian cemetery church in Sion, Sous‐le‐Scex (Rhône Valley, Switzerland), brought to light more than 400 pieces of coloured window glass dating from the fifth or sixth centuries ad . The aims of this paper are threefold: first, to characterize the shape, colour and chemical composition of the glass; secondly, to understand whether the production of the coloured window panes followed traditional Roman glazing techniques or was of a more innovative nature; and, thirdly, to provide some indications as to the overall design of these early ornamental glass windows. Forty samples of coloured glass have been analysed by wavelength‐dispersive X‐ray fluorescence. The results of the chemical and the technological studies showed that most of the glass was produced using recycled glass, particularly as a colouring agent. Some of the glass was made of essentially unmodified glass of the Levantine I type. The results taken together seem to confirm that raw glass from this region was widely traded and used between the fourth and seventh centuries ad . The artisans at Sion were apparently still making use of the highly developed techniques of Roman glass production. The colour spectrum, manufacture and design of the windows, however, suggest that they represent early examples of ornamental coloured glass windows.     

Radical changes in Islamic glass technology: evidence for conservatism and experimentation with new glass recipes from early and middle Islamic Raqqa,Syria*

The chemical analysis of excavated glass fragments from dated archaeological contexts in Raqqa, Syria, has provided a detailed picture of the chemical compositions of artefacts deriving from eighth to ninth and 11th century glassmaking and glassworking activities. Evidence for primary glass production has been found at three excavated sites, of eighth to ninth, 11th and 12th century dates; the first two are discussed here. The 2 km long industrial complex at al‐Raqqa was associated with an urban landscape consisting of two Islamic cities (al‐Raqqa and al‐Rafika) and a series of palace complexes. The glass fused and worked there was presumably for local as well as for regional consumption. Al‐Raqqa currently appears to have produced the earliest well‐dated production on record in the Middle East of an Islamic high‐magnesia glass based on an alkaline plant ash flux and quartz. An eighth to ninth century late ‘Roman’/Byzantine soda–lime recipe of natron and sand begins to be replaced in the eighth to ninth century by a plant ash – quartz Islamic soda–lime composition. By the 11th century, this process was nearly complete. The early Islamic natron glass compositional group from al‐Raqqa shows very little spread in values, indicating a repeatedly well‐controlled process with the use of chemically homogeneous raw materials. A compositionally more diffuse range of eighth to ninth century plant ash glass compositions have been identified. One is not only distinct from established groups of plant ash and natron glasses, but is believed to be the result of experimentation with new raw material combinations. Compositional analysis of primary production waste including furnace glass (raw glass adhering to furnace brick) shows that contemporary glasses of three distinct plant ash types based on various combinations of plant ash, quartz and sand were being made in al‐Raqqa during the late eighth to ninth centuries. This is a uniquely wide compositional range from an ancient glass production site, offering new insights into the complexity of Islamic glass technology at a time of change and innovation.     

Byzantine glass mosaic tesserae: some material considerations

Abstract

Issues about the manufacture of Byzantine mosaics and the implications of these in wider terms relating to social and economic questions about the art form have been little discussed. This paper brings together evidence about Byzantine glass mosaic tesserae gathered from archaeology, glass technology and glass analysis, and synthesizes these into a discussion of three aspects: distribution; manufacture; trade and price. It looks to examine how these different elements can be used to form a more detailed composite picture about the production and distribution of Byzantine mosaics. It also proposes ways in which glass analysis can be used in a more coherent way to extend our understanding of mosaic glass production.     

Potassium–Calcium Glass: New Data and Experiments*

The chemical composition of potassium–calcium ‘wood‐ash’ glass reflects the elemental pattern of the involved non‐volatile base materials in quartz sand, wood ash and possibly potash. The essential elemental ratio K₂O/CaO of wood ash varies between 0.2 and 0.8, and depends on the habitat and geological substratum of the wood rather than on the tree species; ratios between 1.0 and 3.0 in wood‐ash glass are only possible when potash is added as a third base material. Melting temperatures of wood‐ash glass sensu stricto, termed K–Ca‐2, produced with the two raw materials quartz sand and wood ash, are between 1250°C and 1400°C, while those of three‐component‐glasses, termed K–Ca‐3, are between 900°C and 1250°C, according to the amount of added potash. Experimentally produced glass displays different hues, from colourless to brown, olive‐green and pink, according to the chemical composition of the wood ash. Elevated MnO concentrations between 0.5 and 3 wt% may originate from wood ash and are hence not necessarily an indicator of colour‐inhibiting additives. Phosphate stemming from wood ash is an essential discriminator between wood‐ash glass and potash–lime glass. Because wood ash contains only minor amounts of sodium, wood‐ash glass with equal concentrations of potassium and sodium is a hybrid glass type, where besides quartz sand, wood ash, possibly potash and also soda‐rich cullet have been applied for glass production.     

The Evolution of Glass Bottles for Carbonated Drinks

Abstract

This paper traces briefly the history of early attempts to copy natural mineral waters and of the pioneer manufacturers of carbonated drinks. It deals with the shapes of cork-closed bottles used in the 19th century—in particular the ovate container—and the more important of the patent bottles devised by such inventors as Hiram Codd and Dan Rylands, to whom particular reference is made. Bottles for alcoholic drinks are excluded from this survey.     

The St Helens Iron Foundry

Abstract

Initial documentary research undertaken by Lancaster University Archaeological Unit (LUAU) in 1995 for 'The Hotties Science & Arts Centre Ltd.' (hereafter The Hotties) revealed the existence of a former iron foundry on part of the development site for the wider The World of Glass Project which will portray the technical development and heritage of the glass industry in St Helens. Between January 1996 and November 1997 LUAU were commissioned by The Hotties to undertake a range of archaeological works resulting in the excavation of a smithy complex. Known as the St Helens Iron Foundry, and latterly owned by the Daglish family, the site had an international reputation for the casting and building of steam pumping and winding engines for the mining industry. It was particularly successful during the mid-19th century producing locomotives and bridges for the expanding railway network. The foundry was in continuous production from 1798, until its decline and eventual demolition in 1939.