NEW RADIOCARBON ACCELERATOR DATES ON ARTEFACTS FROM THE EARLY MESOLITHIC SITE OF STAR CARR,NORTH YORKSHIRE*

For the well‐known early Mesolithic site of Star Carr, dating of organic artefacts by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) has been hampered by treatment of bone and antler recovered during the original excavations with preservatives. Some, untreated, artefacts were, however, collected after Clark's excavation in 1950. Four of these artefacts were AMS dated in 1995, but two of the dates were significantly younger than the others, and were questionable due to their low collagen yields. These suspect samples have now been re‐analysed, demonstrating that all four artefacts are of similar date. The significance of these dates for the chronology of Star Carr is discussed.     

Dogs,divers, deer and diet. Stable isotope results from Star Carr and a response to Dark

We here respond to Dark's [Dark, P., 2003. Dogs, a crane (not duck) and diet at Star Carr: a response to Schulting and Richards. Journal of Archaeological Science 30, 1353–1356] criticisms of our previous paper [Schulting, R.J., Richards, M.P., 2002. Dogs, ducks, deer and diet: a reappraisal of the stable isotope evidence on early domestic dogs from the Vale of Pickering, north-east England. Journal of Archaeological Science 29, 327–333] in which we supported the previous interpretation of stable isotope data from the Seamer Carr dog [Clutton-Brock, J., Noe-Nygaard, N., 1990. New osteological and C-isotope evidence on Mesolithic dogs: companions to hunters and fishers at Star Carr, Seamer Carr and Kongemose. Journal of Archaeological Science 17, 643–653] as indicating a marine-influenced diet. Additional isotopic data are presented on fauna from Star Carr, most importantly from two piscivorous diving birds. These new data further support the original contention that marine protein is the most likely source of the elevated carbon and nitrogen isotope values seen in the Seamer Carr dog. In addition, cutmarks on the humerus of a Brent goose, and the presence of an additional element (right femur) attributable to the previously known adult dog from Star Carr, are noted for the first time. Two new AMS determinations are presented for Star Carr, placing an adult dog in the period 9680 ± 55 BP (9270–8840 cal BC) and a subadult dog somewhat later at 9342±41 BP (8735–8475 cal BC). Unlike Seamer Carr, both dogs show entirely terrestrial (non-marine) diets.     

A pilot study of “black chert” sourcing and implications for assessing hunter-gatherer mobility strategies in Northern England

Mesolithic hunter-gatherer logistic strategies and raw material procurement locales have been topics of considerable interest in northern England, accelerated by the early discoveries at Star Carr. Here we present the results of a pilot study investigating the potential for geochemically sourcing “black chert”, a material with similar qualities to flint but of inland limestone origin, using ICP-AES, ICP-MS and LA-ICP-MS. Several geological sources of black chert are known, and it is commonly present at upland Mesolithic sites along the Pennine chain. Four geological sources were sampled and analysed, along with a small sample of black chert artefacts from two upland Pennine archaeological sites. The results demonstrate that the four sampled sources can be easily differentiated from one another chemically. This research reveals the potential to apply this approach at a larger scale; the archaeological sample together with the source results indicate that additional sources will need to be identified and sampled before such data can be applied to address current questions of the Mesolithic of northern England.     

From riches to rags: organic deterioration at Star Carr

The 11,000-year old lake edge archaeological site of Star Carr in the Vale of Pickering of North Yorkshire is one of the most famous Mesolithic sites in Europe, and one of the earliest, dated to the period of climatic warming that immediately followed the final termination of the last ice age. One of the main reasons for this international importance is the richness of its organic artefacts, faunal assemblage and environmental data. However, recent investigations have demonstrated that these organic remains have severely deteriorated over the last 60 years due to the decay and acidification of the surrounding peat. This paper presents research into the effects on the bone (histological analysis using light and polarising microscopy, and Transmission Electron Microscopy, bulk collagen analysis, and amino acid analysis), antler (visual and metrical analysis, loss on ignition and Scanning Electron Microscopy) and wood (visual analysis, decay assessment tests and Scanning Electron Microscopy).     

An Analytical Methodology for the Study of the Corrosion of Ferrous Archaeological Remains in Soils

Abstract

In the context of the cultural heritage, a methodology based on ?eld and laboratory approaches is developed for studying the long-term corrosion of iron. Moreover it has been adapted to the study of archaeological artefacts buried in anoxic soils in the speci?c case of in situ preservation. The environmental parameters are determined on the archaeological sites and artefacts are collected and characterized using complementary multi-scale techniques. Moreover, laboratory experiments are performed to locate the reaction sites inside the corrosion layer and to identify its electronic properties. The results allow estimation of a low corrosion rate for iron buried in an anoxic soil (under 2 μm/year) and the proposal of a mechanism based on a decoupling of the anodic and the cathodic sites. Then a diagnosis of the alteration state of the samples is established.     

A new find of brown bear (Ursus arctos) from Star Carr and other finds in the late glacial and post glacial of Britain and Denmark

A vertebra of a Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) is described from the Mesolithic settlement Star Carr. This is the first record of the species from the site. The presence of Brown Bear in a Preboreal/Boreal deposit is an important addition to the early Mesolithic fauna of Britain. A comparison with contemporary Danish material shows that the bone from Star Carr falls within the wide size range of the Danish subfossil Brown Bear. In Denmark the species decreases in number from Boreal to Atlantic time, and finds are extremely scarce in Britain during the same time interval. This is probably due to the major eustatic sea level rise, which isolated Britain and Sjælland, preventing new immigration, and to vegetational changes restricting the preferred habitats of the Brown Bear.     

Impact of Roots and Rhizomes on Wetland Archaeology: A Review

The general premise for successful archaeological in situ preservation in wetlands is that raising the water table will ‘seal the grave’ by preventing oxygen from reaching the deposit. The present review reveals that this may not be the entire picture, as a change in habitat may introduce new plant species that can damage site stratigraphy and artefacts. However, reviews on the types and degree of damage caused by vegetation to archaeological remains preserved in situ in wetlands have hitherto only been sporadically treated in the literature. Thus, this paper provides an overview of the adverse effects that various plants species have on the preservation status of wetland archaeology.Disturbance, due to growth of roots and rhizomes of the surrounding soil is denoted contextual disturbance, whereas deterioration of archaeological remains per se acts by several root-related factors that may be spatially and temporally concomitant. In waterlogged anoxic environments, deterioration is mainly related to (i) preferential growth of roots/rhizomes due to nutrient uptake and lesser soil resistance, (ii) root etching due to organic acid exudates, (iii) microbial growth due to root release of oxygen and labile organic compounds, and/or (iv) precipitation of hydroxides due to root release of oxygen. For example, roots of some wetland plants, such as marsh horsetail (Equisetum palustre), have been documented to penetrate archaeological artefacts down to c. 2 m in waterlogged anoxic soils. Here, we demonstrate that cultural heritage site management may unintentionally introduce deep-rooted or exudate aggressive plants by invoking change in hydrological conditions. Moreover, the implementation of biomass energy utilization and agricultural root depth optimization on a worldwide basis stresses the need for more research within root and rhizome impact on archaeological remains in wetlands. In conclusion, the worst-case scenario may be in situ deterioration instead of preservation, and one essential threat to archaeological wetland sites is the impact of wetland vegetation.     

From pedologic indications to archaeological reconstruction: deciphering land use in the Islamic period in the Baida district (north-western Sicily)

The aim of this work was to detect imprints on soil properties from former Islamic land use (9th to 11th century) using a multi-method, soil-chemical approach. Four soil profiles (with buried horizons) found in the vicinities of former Islamic settlements in Sicily were analysed for phosphorus (total, organic and inorganic), nitrogen (total, NO₃⁻ and NH₄⁺), carbon compounds (δ¹³C, lipids, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and functional groups), physical and chemical C-fractions and the state of soil weathering. Two soil profiles contained ceramic sherds from the Islamic period. Inorganic nitrogen forms, phosphorous and the PAH content indicated strong impacts from traditional agriculture and/or burning. Radiocarbon dating of soil organic carbon (SOC) fractions from buried horizons showed that distinct changes must have occurred during the Islamic epoch. The isotopic composition of SOC indicated that land use was probably different in earlier times. C₄ plant cultivation was expected but surprisingly lipid analyses did not confirm this. A high amount of aliphates and low C/N ratio indicated a good, long-term SOC stabilisation under the native conditions combined with Islamic land use. The irrigation of the soils probably increased the production of weakly-crystalline Fe forms that helped to stabilise SOC.     

The Future Preservation of a Permanently Frozen Kitchen Midden in Western Greenland

Abstract

Archaeological materials may be extraordinarily well preserved in Arctic areas, where permanently frozen conditions in the ground slow down the decay of materials such as wood, bone, ?esh, hair, and DNA. However, the mean annual air temperature in the Arctic is expected to increase by between 2·5 to 7·5°C by the end of the twenty-?rst century. This may have a signi?cant warming effect on the soil and could lead to permafrost thaw and degradation of currently frozen archaeological remains. Here we present a four-year monitoring and research project taking place at Qajaa in the Disko Bay area in West Greenland. Qajaa is a large kitchen midden, containing frozen remains from 4000 years of inhabitation, from when the ?rst Palaeo-Eskimos entered Greenland, until the site was abandoned in the eighteenth century. The purpose of the project is to investigate current preservation conditions through ?eld and laboratory measurements and to evaluate possible threats to the future preservation.

Preliminary results show that the archaeological material at Qajaa is still very well preserved, but some microbial decay is observed in the exposed wooden artefacts that thaw every summer. Maximum temperatures are above 0°C in the upper 40–50 cm of the midden and between 0 and ?2°C down to 3 m depth. Thereby the permafrost may be vulnerable to quite small increases in air temperatures. Laboratory measurements show that the decay of the archaeological wood in the midden is temperature-dependent, with rates increasing 11–12% every time the soil temperature increases 1°C. Moreover, the soil organic material produces heat when decomposed, which could have an additional warming effect on the midden. At the moment the water or ice content within the midden is high, limiting the subsurface oxygen availability. Threats to the future preservation are related to further thawing followed by drainage, increased oxygen availability, microbial decay of the organic material, and heat production.     

AN INTERIM REPORT OF THE STAR CARR MICROWEAR STUDY

Summary. This paper presents some preliminary observations based on the microwear analysis of 173 artefacts from the mesolithic site of Star Carr, near Scarborough, Yorkshire. One hundred discrete and utilized edges were identified by the presence of various microwear traces on 79 of the artefacts belonging to the following general types: scrapers, edge-damaged or marginally retouched blades and flakes, bilaterally backed blades (awls), burins, backed blades, axe resharpening flakes, denticulated or truncated blades and flakes, microliths, and cores. The microwear traces identified on the tools indicates that they were used in a variety of ways in the processing of hide, bone, wood, antler and meat. A comparison of wear-traces and tool shape has shown that there are morphological differences between scrapers used on hide and those used on bone, and also, that edge-damaged or marginally retouched blades were selected for use on the basis of their cross-sectional configuration.     

Early Holocene land snail exploitation in northern spain: the case of La Fragua cave

Abstract

The question of the anthropic or natural origin of land snail deposits within the archaeological record is the subject of debate all over the world. In the Cantabrian region of northern Spain land snail middens are routinely identified in the early Holocene archaeological record. La Fragua Cave (Cantabria, Spain), which contains an early Holocene layer dated to 9600±140 BP (10,932±196 cal BP), offers the opportunity to address this debate through the examination of Cepaea nemoralis (Linnaeus) land snails recovered in direct association with mammal bones, charcoal, lithic artefacts and other materials. It is therefore believed that their presence at the site is clearly anthropic in origin. In addition, the exploitation patterns indicate an occasional collection and consumption of land snails, which confirms the complementary character of these resources in the diet of hunter-gatherers in Cantabrian Spain during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition.     

Reburial and Analyses of Archaeological Remains in the Marine Environment — Investigations into the Effects on Metals

Abstract

The treatment and long-term storage of recovered cultural material from underwater heritage sites is becoming less cost effective, and reburial of archaeological sites and the associated artefacts in the marine environment is becoming increasingly common practice in managing the submerged cultural resource. Following recent large-scale underwater archaeological excavations in Marstrand harbour, Sweden, the majority of recovered finds were reburied in defined trenches in the harbour sediment. Subsequently, the Studio of the Western Sweden Conservators in conjunction with the Bohus County Museum initiated a fifty-year research project to evaluate reburial as an appropriate method of preserving waterlogged archaeological artefacts in the long term. The research project, entitled ‘Reburial and Analyses of Archaeological Remains’, was launched in 2002 and consists of six sub-projects. The main aims of these sub-projects are to analyse the extent of deterioration of the most common material types found on underwater archaeological sites, assess the stability of packing and marking materials used in archaeological documentation, and monitor the reburial environment.

The aim of the metals sub-project is to investigate the short- to long-term corrosion behaviour of metals buried in the marine environment by examining the deterioration of reburied and exposed modern metal coupons and eventually compare these results to the analysis of actual shipwreck artefacts. The environmental monitoring sub-project is designed to complement the other sub-projects by assessing the physico-chemical changes occurring in the reburial environment over time and the effect on the deterioration of the different reburied material types. In comparing the results obtained over the past seven years from both the metals and monitoring sub-projects, it should be possible to more accurately evaluate the effectiveness of reburial as a long-term in situ preservation strategy for metallic archaeological remains.     

Stratospheric positive ion composition measurements,ion abundances and related trace gas detection

Positive ion spectra obtained from measurements with a balloon-borne mass spectrometer during three balloon flights are critically investigated and compared with other data. Ion abundances for proton hydrates [H⁺(H₂O)_n ions] at different stratospheric temperatures are compared, as well as the abundances of non proton hydrates H⁺X_itl(H₂O)_m, X being most likely CH₃CN.The detection of trace gases from ion composition measurements is discussed and an upper limit for the number densities of minor constituents such as NH₃ and CH₃OH is estimated at 35 km. Although sodium compounds cannot be responsible for the major positive ions, a closer investigation of high resolution daytime spectra suggests a small contribution of sodium in daytime ion chemistry.     

Long-Term Preservation of Dendroarchaeological Specimens and In Situ Preservation: Problems and Practical Solutions

Abstract

Dendrochronology offers a unique opportunity to address archaeological questions with minimal invasiveness. Often, archaeological tree-ring sampling, and occasionally analysis itself, can be performed while the larger structure or object remains in situ. In comparison to the costs and benefits of excavation (complete or partial) and a growing international call for in situ preservation, dendrochronology provides an effective compromise for the interpretation of wooden material culture.

The current number of archaeological tree-ring specimens worldwide probably exceeds 2,000,000. These specimens have been obtained from thousands of historic buildings, shipwrecks, and other sites and artefacts. These specimens are housed by a variety of public and private entities: museums, universities, governments, private corporations, and individuals. Despite their importance as vouchers for archaeological dates and great potential for future use and new applications, generally little attention has been paid to the long-term curation of tree-ring specimens. This paper identifies some pressing curation problems and suggests that the value and nature of dendroarchaeological research is compatible with international calls for in situ preservation. Some practical suggestions, provided here, could drastically improve the long-term curation of dendroarchaeological specimens, further demonstrating the methodology as a viable and valuable partner to in situ preservation.     

Slag inclusions in iron objects and the quest for provenance: an experiment and a case study

Slag inclusions are found within most archaeological bloomery iron artefacts and are remainders of slag created during the smelting and smithing processes. Although they are widely believed to provide data with the potential for provenancing iron artefacts, previous slag inclusion studies have mostly proven inconclusive. The main aim of the work reported here is to analyse experimental smelting and smithing assemblages (including ore, furnace lining, fuel and slag), to compare these to slag inclusions in the resulting bloom and worked objects, and then explore the relationships between ore, slag and slag inclusions. This study has revealed that the composition of slag inclusions most closely relates to the smelting slag produced, whereas provenance to a specific ore would be difficult due to the chemical variability derived from furnace lining, fuel and any fluxes used. Some compounds in the slag inclusions are particularly affected during smithing of the artefact, i.e. those present in the sand flux and fuel used. However, trends are observed in the K₂O/MgO, MnO/SiO₂, Al₂O₃/SiO₂, Al₂O₃/MgO, Al₂O₃/K₂O and Al₂O₃/CaO ratios that allow comparison between slag inclusions and smelting slag in these experiments, and may therefore be used during other provenancing attempts. The knowledge gained from the experimental assemblages was subsequently applied to an archaeological case study, examining objects from the 900 Cal BC smithing site of Tel Beth-Shemesh, Israel and the 930 Cal BC smelting site of Tell Hammeh, Jordan. The analyses suggest that none of the artefacts examined derived from the Hammeh smelting system.     

Thirty Years of Monitoring in England — What Have We Learnt?

Abstract

Over the last thirty years, over sixty separate episodes of monitoring waterlogged archaeological sites have been carried out in England. This paper lists these projects, summarizes basic information about them, and reviews what we have learnt over these last thirty years. Recommendations are given to help improve future monitoring projects. In particular, it is suggested that more work is needed on assessing the state of preservation of a site before monitoring is considered; that a proper project design needs to be developed at the outset of the work; and that more thought should go into deciding why monitoring is needed for a given site, including identifying mitigation options that can be initiated if monitoring data suggest optimum conditions for survival are no longer being maintained.     

Geochemical indicators of preservation status and site deterioration at Star Carr

This paper presents the results of a project aimed at investigating the deterioration of organic remains at the Mesolithic site of Star Carr. Analyses of pH, Electrical Conductivity and Redox Potential are reported from borehole transects across the unexcavated part of the site. A comparison of field and laboratory measurements is made, leading to the characterisation of different preservation zones and identification of ‘vulnerable’ sediments at the site. These data are augmented by geochemical analyses of contemporary borehole sequences and adjacent historic monoliths. Analysis of surface water and groundwater has also been undertaken to assist in the interpretation of the site hydrology and geochemistry. The relationship between ‘natural’ geology and preservation potential, and the evidence for a ‘halo’ preservation effect in virgin sediments adjacent to previous archaeology trenches is investigated.     

The Chemical Heat Pipe EVA and ADAM

Abstract

The interdisciplinary system described, for the transport of energy over long distances, has been under active investigation on a pilot plant stage for some years. Heat from a high temperature gas cooled nuclear reactor is proposed as an energy source to convert methane and steam, an endothermic chemical reaction, into carbon oxides and hydrogen – the EVA proces. The resulting gases can be pumped through pipes over long distance and, at the point of energy requirement, be converted back as an exothermic reaction – the ADAM process. Both reactions have been tested at Jülich with success and could be commercially Introduced at the end of the present century. Additional advantages are described for this closed circuit chemical heat pipe system.     

Lowland Floodplain Responses to Extreme Flood Events: Long-Term Studies and Short-Term Microbial Community Response to Water Environment Impacts

Abstract

Targeted studies of waterlogged burial environments allow researchers to gain holistic insights into the physico-chemical and biological condition of wetlands that have the potential to contain organic remains of both anthropogenic and biogenic origin. Recent research has shown that microbial community diversity and functioning are intimately linked to physical and chemical parameters, such that environmental perturbations may have the potential to enhance the effectiveness of microbial communities in the degradation process. Our studies have shown that, as a consequence of the 2007 floods which impacted upon many British lowland rivers, a rapid microbial response to environmental perturbations can be demonstrated within the wetland deposits being monitored. As such, a quantification of the latent functionality of micro-organisms in a soil profile may be of fundamental importance for our understanding of potential in situ degradation processes; and, as a consequence, the likelihood for the biodegradation of sensitive archaeo-organic remains; a factor which is of primary importance for both ongoing and future mitigation strategies, and attempts at managing the cultural resource of wetlands.

This paper will present a consideration of the effectiveness of a long-term research project in a lowland wetland at Newington, Nottinghamshire, England, studied between 2004 and 2008; and evaluate the efficacy of this study in relation to the significant impacts that occurred as a result of the severe floods in 2007. We conclude that the data generated after the floods necessitated a total re-evaluation of the first approximately two years of environmental monitoring, and that the impacts throughout the sediment profile continued for some time after the initial flood event. These observations potentially have far-reaching implications for future in situ monitoring as disruptions to weather patterns influence the various environmental impacts on the wetland resource.     

Archaeological Watching Brief and Metal Detector Survey at Gill House Farm,Long Marston,North Yorkshire

Abstract

On 5 August 2005 Tim Sutherland carried out an archaeological watching brief during trenching for the foundations of a new barn by contractors acting on behalf of Mr P Barnitt, of Gill House Farm, Long Marston, York (NGR SE 449450 451750). Prior to this work, on 24 July, 2005 a metal detector survey was conducted over the same piece of land in order to assess whether or not any metal artefacts from the battle of Marston Moor, which took place in this location, could be located within the topsoil. No archaeological features were present. A total of 88 artefacts were recorded during the metal detector survey, 26 of which were lead shot. The survey confirmed that part of the battle of Marston Moor (1644) took place on the ground disturbed by the development of the barn.