Natural degradation of earthworks,trenches, walls and moats,Northern Thailand

We here investigate the geometry, age, and history of several enigmatic northern Thailand earthwork entrenchments that are mostly located on hills and could not have held water to form moats. The earthworks are either oval or rectangular in plan view and typically encircle 0.3 to 1?sq km areas with no potsherd debris that would indicate former towns. Most trenches are 3–5?m deep with inner walls 4.5–8?m high. Some encircling earthworks are concentric double trenches spaced approximately 10?m apart. Historians have suggested these earthworks enclosed defensible areas where people in outlying villages sought refuge when under attack by neighboring rulers, the Chinese Ho, or the Burmese. We argue that some encircling entrenchments may have been for the capture or containment of elephants. Nearly all of the once near-vertical original walls have degraded to slopes of 32–47°. Fitting calculated curves of the diffusion-based scarp-degradation model to our height-slope data, and assuming most scarps have degraded since the end of La Na Kingdom time a.d. 1558, we derive a diffusion coefficient of 0.002?m² y^?1. Slopes of the rectangular earthwork at Souvannkhomkham, Laos, across the Mekong River from Chiang Saen Noi, are significantly more degraded (approximately 32°), indicating an age of 800–1200 years. Locations of these earthworks are established in hope that they will be preserved as part of the Thai and Lao archaeological legacy.     

Ahvola 1918: Archaeological Reconnaissance of a Finnish Civil War Battlefield

Abstract

The Finnish Civil War (1918) has received very little attention from the archaeologists until recently. This paper describes the first archaeological investigation of a Civil War battlefield in the Karelian Isthmus, nowadays northwest Russia. The battlefield of Ahvola, which saw one of the decisive battles of the war, was surveyed briefly in November 2007. With relatively little subsequent landuse, the general landscape has remained roughly similar to that of the early twentieth century, and the remains of field fortifications have been preserved unexpectedly well. Thus the fields of Ahvola hold high potential for more widespread archaeological studies in future. The present survey, along with two earlier surveys of Finnish Civil War battlefields, provides important base data for future research on the subject.     

The Study of Small Finds at the 1644 Battle of Cheriton

Abstract

A metal detection survey over a 2.6% sample of the Registered 1644 Battlefield of Cheriton yielded 355 metallic small finds, of which 92% were directly related to the battle. An archaeological analysis of the sample emphasises the use of non-valuable small finds as an aid to understanding the location, direction and participants of battle. An appreciation of battle and the actions of warfare has been indicated via the social and functional aspects of weaponry. The finds have been assessed within their Civil War context and indicate that the presumed extent of the battlefield could be much larger than previously thought. The distribution of the finds confirms that the retreating Royalist army were pursued as they fled. Individual regiments within the armies have been identified based on find typology and distribution, to build up a coherent interpretation of the battle.     

The Battle of Agincourt: An Alternative location?

Abstract

The recent publicity surrounding the proposed construction of a wind farm close to the Medieval Agincourt battlefield in France has provoked an outcry suggesting that, once again, a European historic battlefield is at risk. A recent archaeological survey on the Agincourt battlefield has, however, failed to find positive artefactual evidence of the conflict on the officially designated battlefield site. Using the available historical and archaeological data from Agincourt and evidence from the successfully surveyed Medieval battlefield at Towton, England, an interpretation can be proposed, which highlights an alternative location for the French-English battle of 1415. Unfortunately, if this hypothesis was confirmed it is possible that, in attempting to protect an incorrect site, the correct site is more likely to be left unprotected and might eventually be destroyed.     

“Nameless landscapes” - what can be seen and understood on a battlefield?

Abstract

A battlefield—as a complex notion—encompasses many kinds of space, from the physical to the symbolic. The features of geographical elements together created the stage for a clash and conditioned in some way (partly or even entirely) the course and result of the battle. However, today’s battlefield landscape is often a literary silent witness to history, telling us nothing of the past. Given the fact that battlefields have become tourist attractions and are a destination not only to the so-called ‘dedicated cultural tourists’, there is a need to give the landscape a voice in the complex tourist narration. In order to enable including a historical landscape story in a general tourist narration about a battlefield, a theoretical framework of a historical battlefield is proposed and discussed to justify the need of using specific tourist facilities to make the past present in today’s landscape. The case of Rac?awice battlefield in Poland illustrates the ‘nameless landscape’ where only the symbolic space is readable and linked with the past. It also supports a conclusion that there is a need to make the battlefield legible in terms of the sequence of events, the roles of people (groups and individual), and the role of geographical features in the battle. In this simple condition, a visit to a battlefield might be more complex and provide a fuller understanding.     

Building a Model of a Field Fortification of the Thirty Years' War near Olbramov (Czech Republic)

Abstract

From July 2002 to August 2004 an attempt was made to build a model of a field fortification—a square redoubt—from the era of the Thirty Years' War. The experiment was motivated by the results of a systematic archaeological survey of the battlefield near T?ebel from 1647.     

Field survey and excavation of two linear wooden features at Hooper’s Ground,Westhay Heath,Somerset, 1992

Abstract

While much is known of prehistoric exploitation of the Somerset Levels and Moors,¹ extensive peat extraction across the Moors since the early post-medieval period has effectively removed most of the historic peats and consequently much the archaeology of the later periods. It is now believed that peat was continuing to form in the area until the end of the first millennium AD,² and though little is known, medieval and post-medieval features will invariably have cut into these and earlier peats. B. Coles and J. Coles, Sweet Track to Glastonbury (London, 1986). M. Cox, ‘Archaeology in the Somerset Levels and Moors 1992’ in M. Bell (ed.), Severn Estuary Levels Research Committee Annual Report 1992, 63-68.

In 1991, two similar linear brushwood features were noted, during routine archaeological monitoring of areas subject to peat extraction, in an area known as ‘Hooper’s Ground’ between the villages of Westhay and Burtle, some three miles west of Glastonbury. Revealed as a consequence of peat extraction, a short programme of survey and excavation undertaken in 1992 demonstrated that they were contemporary structures dating from around 1700. Their function is presently unknown, although it is considered that they may reflect land restoration for agricultural use post-dating earlier efforts at peat extraction.     

Where are the dead of medieval battles? A preliminary survey

Abstract

Only a handful of mass graves from late medieval battles in Western Europe have been subject to large scale excavation to modern standards. The principal reason is that these, and indeed even early modern battlefield graves, have proven extremely elusive, most being identified by chance. Despite a few successes, no combination of prospecting techniques yet provides a consistently effective method of locating such small archaeological features set almost anywhere within a site covering many square kilometres. But this important resource should be explored and conserved for, as Towton has shown, much can be learnt through modern excavation and analysis of the remains. While this paper does consider the existing archaeological record, its primary focus and the starting point for almost any search for mass graves on a battlefield, has to be the documentary record. Using this evidence one must debate the number who actually died, how they were interred and commemorated and whether this varied according to status or allegiance, and where on the battlefield the graves might lie. One must also consider how often we will need to look further afield for the dead, for it is unclear how often the desire for appropriate Christian burial meant some or even most were interred in, or later moved to, consecrated ground.     

Survey and Experimental Investigation of Movable Fire Loads in Japanese-Style Wooden Historical Buildings

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the movable fire loads and the characteristics of combustible materials in Japanese-style wooden historical buildings via field surveys and cone calorimeter experiments. Twenty-one historical buildings with 102 rooms and a total floor area of 2235.06 m² were surveyed to determine the movable fire load. Strong correlations among fire load density, compartment floor area, and spatial use are found in this survey. The mean values of the movable fire load density in decreasing order in terms of room use are storeroom (431.38 MJ/m²), study room (298 MJ/m²), bedroom (294.88 MJ/m²), reception room (287.20 MJ/m²), and dining room (217.11 MJ/m²), providing fire engineering design with a reliable fire load setting in various types of rooms in historical buildings.     

ARCHAEOGEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS AT AN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY CADDO SITE IN NACOGDOCHES COUNTY,EAST TEXAS

Abstract

The J. T. King site (41NA15) is an early-eighteenth-century Caddo habitation site in East Texas. Recent archaeogeophysical work (covering 2.5 ha) at the site has obtained unique data on the spatial organization of a Caddo settlement that was occupied at the time of the Spanish colonization of East Texas. Our interpretation of the magnetometer data is that there are 10 possible Caddo structures in the archaeogeophysical survey area. A few magnetic anomalies have been successfully ground truthed at the J. T. King site. These test excavations have demonstrated a positive correlation between magnetometer anomalies and the occurrence of Caddo architectural features.     

Estimating the Number of Combatants during the Mixtón War in the Peñol de Nochistlán

Abstract

The objective of this article is to determine the number of combatants in the Mixtón War (1541–42), one of the most important military confrontations of the early years of the vice-royalty in Western Mexico, by analysing the Peñol de Nochistlán. To this end, information provided by historians has been compared with the population estimates established from the density of settlements known from archaeological evidence in order to define the area occupied by the armies involved in the conflict. This exercise resulted in a shifting array of spaces that could have been used by the combatants during confrontations. However, it will enable more intense archaeological prospecting in the area around the site of El Tuiche — the place identified as the Peñol of Nochistlán — revealing new evidence of the events that occurred on this battlefield.     

Finding a Relatively Flat Archaeological Site with Minimal Ceramics: A Case Study from Iraqi Kurdistan

ABSTRACT

We present a new technique to detect flat archaeological sites with minimal ceramics using an unmanned aerial vehicle that maps surface stone concentrations. Methods deployed include point pattern analysis of stone concentrations and a machine-learning technique using unsupervised classification of visible stone signature qualities, which are used in simple linear regressions to compare with geophysical and ceramic surface survey results of a site in Iraqi Kurdistan. There is a stronger fit (r^2?=?0.77) between surface stone concentrations and architecture identified by geophysical measurement, while surveyed ceramics show a weaker fit to defined architecture (r^2?=?0.31). Surface stone concentrations are potentially a better proxy than ceramics for determining the presence of past settlement in regions where stone was commonly used, sites are relatively flat, and ceramics are found in low concentrations. The methods advanced here can be scaled to wider areas, particularly in mountainous regions, where surface stone features are present.     

Native grasslands and the stabilization of earthwork archaeological sites on the middle Missouri River,North Dakota

Abstract

Site condition and management practices at six Missouri River archaeological sites are reviewed and the condition of the sites compared between observations in 1993 and 1998. Earthwork sites in a cover of prairie or pasture grasses that have been mown for interpretation purposes have become more infested with ground squirrels. Tall prairie or shrubland obscures site features but these animals are less numerous on sites with such cover. One mown site in an urban area had no ground squirrels, suggesting that the animals had been removed by local urban dwellers or their cats and had no chance to re-invade. The long-term stability of archaeological sites can best be achieved by allowing native prairie grasses to grow tall, leaving only small samples of the site area open, or by control of ground squirrel numbers.     

A NEW LOOK AT KINCAID: MAGNETIC SURVEY OF A LARGE MISSISSIPPIAN TOWN

Abstract

Despite extensive work by the University of Chicago in 1934–44, Kincaid has remained one of the least understood of the large mid-South Mississippian mound complexes. Between 2003 and 2009, large-scale magnetic gradient survey was done on 33.6 ha of the site, roughly half of the total site area and 65 percent of the larger and more accessible Massac County portion. The survey was highly successful, revealing large numbers of cultural features, including palisades, structures, pit features, and midden areas. This paper presents the preliminary results of the geophysical survey, complemented by small-scale groundtruthing excavations. Together these have significantly expanded and refined our understanding of this large prehistoric town. Kincaid is clearly much larger than once thought, both in terms of total site area and area of habitation. The site also exhibits much greater internal complexity, as evidenced by internal palisades and numerous small mounds and earthen platforms.     

Parameters in the use of pXRF for archaeological site prospection: a case study at the Reaume Fort Site,Central Minnesota

Field portable/hand-held x-ray fluorescence (pXRF) analyzers have been characterized as potentially useful for archaeological site prospection, but little has been published on the parameters of their use in this manner. The purpose of this study is to explore whether the variability of surface geochemistry as characterized with a pXRF analyzer corresponds with subsurface archaeological features at a site subsequently excavated, and what conditions influence the success of this endeavor, including feature depths, soil moisture, and sample processing. A 520 m² within-site area was systematically surveyed on a 2 m interval, within which several types of archaeological features were excavated (chimney bases, wall trenches, and a bonebed of faunal waste), taking readings in situ and collecting samples for ex situ testing (undried, dried but not powdered, and dried/powdered). The four different tests of each grid location, analyzed through univariate and multivariate tests, showed that the pXRF surface data does correspond with some types of subsurface features when those features are very shallow (within 5 cm of surface level) and are associated with clayey fills. Further, the data from the subsurface samples provides excellent distinction of feature fills from other sediments, regardless of sample preparation. In situ surface survey with pXRF analyzers may however be adequate for sites with a thorough baseline geochemical database.     

Tourist motivations in relation to a battlefield: a case study of Kinmen

ABSTRACT

To assess tourist motivations at the battlefield site on Kinmen Island of Taiwan, an empirical investigation was conducted. From a convenience sample, we collected 437 effective responses of respondents including domestic and international tourists with different cultural background in Kinmen. The structure of motivation was first examined via factor analysis. Then ANOVA analysis was applied to address the influence from demographic aspects such as gender, age, and nationality. Our results show that personal, spiritual, experience, physical, and emotional perspectives are five major sources of motivations. More importantly, age and nationality are confirmed to be two major dimensions to segment tourists in the context of battlefield tourism. Tourists with older age have higher motivations toward the battlefield site in comparison with young tourists. In addition, tourists with different cultural background based on different nationalities are significantly motivated by various motivational factors. The example of Kinmen contributes theoretically to a better understanding of the motivational attributes in a battlefield site, and how they represent a basis for increasing tourist perceptions. The motivational mechanisms and factors explored in this case can be incorporated into marketing strategies. Additionally, our results also provide a viable basis for the tourism authorities concerned to reevaluate the essence of its tourism industry in the context of battlefield resources and attractions.     

An Archaeological Study of the Battle of the Boyne at Oldbridge,Co Meath

Abstract

This paper outlines the results of a pilot archaeological study carried out on the Oldbridge Estate, Co. Meath, Ireland, in advance of its development for the presentation of the events of the Battle of the Boyne which was fought by the forces of King William III and James II on 1st July 1690. Archival research including the examination of museum collections, cartographic sources, contemporary artistic depictions of the battle and recent aerial photographic coverages was followed up by the use of a range of archaeological techniques including systematic surface collection survey, soil phosphate analysis, magnetic gradiometry, metal detecting and limited test excavation. Additionally, marine geophysics equipment was used to profile the character of the River Boyne, especially in the area of the main crossings. The study revealed important new evidence including the establishment of the location of Oldbridge village, a pivotal feature in the conduct of the battle, the confirmation of the location of the first engagement on the day of the battle and the first systematically recovered artefacts from the battlefield.     

Transformations: Post-Battle Processes on the Hürtgenwald Battlefield

Abstract

This paper uses the 1944 Hürtgenwald battlefield on the German-Belgian border as a case study to reflect upon two issues: what contributions to an understanding of post-battle transformations are made by an analysis of Second World War battlefields; and how an archaeological approach can help understand the Hürtgenwald battlefield. The analysis presented here discusses what actually happens with a modern battlefield after the killing is over and how such post-battle processes alter the way such a site is interpreted. In this respect, a battlefield from World War II reveals the transformations to which battlefields are subjected and provides a well-documented model case to study the effect of post-battle processes on conflict landscapes.     

The Archaeology of the Siege of Leith, 1560

Abstract

This paper summarises the findings of two evaluations carried out in public spaces in the Leith area, both of which were specifically designed to establish the survival or otherwise of remains relating to the siege of Leith in 1560. Between 6 and 10 November 2006 a trial trenching evaluation was carried out within Pilrig Park to the south of the French citadel to 'ground truth' geophysical anomalies identified during a previous phase of work (Banks et al. 2006) and also to establish the character of topographic features on the ground. The main aim of the project was to establish the presence or absence of remains related to the siege fort known as Somerset's Mount which from a map drawn in 1560 is known to have been located in the vicinity. The evaluation identified the remains of a WWII air raid shelter, the remains of a building associated with Pilrig House demolished sometime in the early to mid 19th century, and a possible ditch associated with the fort, into which several archaeological features including the foundation slot of a small building or other structure and a probable blacksmith's forge had been cut.

The second part of this report concerns the evaluation at Leith Links, around 1 km to the north east of Pilrig Park and to east of the French citadel. A week long evaluation similar to that carried out at Pilrig took place in April 2007, the aim being to locate further evidence for siege works. Once again, attention focussed on geophysical anomalies resulting from the previous survey. The Links are traditionally associated with the siege through the presence of two mounds, which at least since the 19th century have been identified as the platforms for siege guns directed against the eastern face of the French citadel. An area between the two mounds, which are scheduled ancient monuments, was trial trenched along with an area further to the north. Only the latter produced physical remains which seem to relate to the 1560 map. These took the form of an earthen bank and possibly related ditches which run along the same alignment as a feature shown on the early map, though there is some question as to its function.     

Settlement studies and the archaeological survey of North Norway — A discussion based on the survey of North Troms

By the end of the 1984 field season a systematic archaeological survey of the county of Troms was completed. At the same time a revision of the survey was started. The survey of Troms is part of a nation‐wide archaeological survey, connected with the production of an Economic Map of Norway. Though the validity of the methods and the results of this survey have been questioned, few attempts have been made at evaluating the archaeological data base produced by the survey. The current total revision of the survey makes this task even more urgent. The aim of this paper is to contribute towards such an evaluation, by utilizing the survey data from six North Troms municipalities in an attempt at constructing a history of settlement for this area.