Age‐at‐Death Estimates from a Disarticulated,Fragmented and Commingled Archaeological Battlefield Assemblage

Estimation of age‐at‐death is an important and challenging part of any investigation of human remains. Extensive research has been undertaken on this subject as demographic information contributes much to bioarchaeological and forensic work. Disarticulated, fragmentary and commingled human remains occur from a wide range of spatial and temporal contexts, and estimation of age‐at‐death can be particularly challenging in these collections. This study evaluated the impact of preservation on techniques that might be applied and their relative utility, using human remains from the site of the Smith's Knoll associated with the Battle of Stoney Creek, a War of 1812 collection from Ontario Canada with some supporting documentary evidence on age‐at‐death. Features assessed were the pubic symphysis, auricular surface and epiphyseal fusion in the innominate. An age‐at‐death estimate was produced for 16 out of 19 individuals considered; the highest minimum number of individuals (MNI) was 24 (right radius) from 2701 identifiable fragments. The pubic symphysis made no contribution to construction of a demographic profile, but as has been suggested previously epiphyseal fusion was useful in this respect. Results demonstrate that previous statements regarding preservation of the auricular surface and its utility in fragmented and poorly preserved collections need to be carefully evaluated. Although 129 fragments of innominate were recorded just one had an auricular surface and post auricular area that could be fully assessed. Transition Analysis was easier to apply than techniques developed previously, and findings from this study suggest that use of the forensic prior distribution could assist in assessment of battlefield assemblages. These results raise some valuable points that need to be considered in any future attempts to improve age‐at‐death estimates using the auricular surface, and important questions regarding expectations for estimation of age‐at‐death in disarticulated, fragmented and commingled collections of human bone. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Age Changes in the Clavicle: from the Early Neonatal Period to Skeletal Maturity

Of all the long bones in the human skeleton, it is the clavicle which displays the longest period of growth-related activity, rendering it particularly useful for the estimation of age at death in the earlier years. However, because of the universal paucity of documented juvenile remains, most previous studies have, by necessity, not only been based on material of estimated age at death but also restricted to a narrow age range. The aim of the present study was to chart developmental age-related change in the clavicle across its full growth range using juvenile and young adult material of documented age at death. Maximum diaphysial length was recorded for prepubertal individuals and a grading of the progressive alterations in medial epiphysial morphology was recorded for post-pubertal specimens. In this way, age changes in the clavicle were examined across its developmental maturity continuum.     

Comments on the chronology of the younger stone age in Varanger,North Norway

Age determination at death of skeletal remains can prove difficult. The teeth are often well preserved and could present the only means for an age evaluation. Based on the closure of skull sutures and dental attrition, the age of a Stone Age man was judged to be about 60 years when he succumbed. This has now been verified by means of measuring the extent of root dentin transparency. The importance of teamwork in difficult cases regarding assessment of age in skeletal remains is pointed out.     

A Bayesian Approach to Ageing Perinatal Skeletal Material from Archaeological Sites: Implications for the Evidence for Infanticide in Roman-Britain

The skeletal remains of substantial numbers of perinatal human infants have been excavated from within a variety of archaeological contexts dating to the Romano-British period. It has been argued that the distribution of ages at death of these infants, which appears to exhibit a pronounced neonatal peak, provides evidence for infanticide. This study re-evaluates the osteological evidence for infanticide in Roman Britain by first identifying biases in traditional techniques for estimating the age of perinatal skeletons and then using a Bayesian procedure to reassess the ages at deaths of almost 400 infants from a number of Roman sites throughout England. We conclude that the apparent peak in neonatal mortality shown by earlier investigations is an artefact of regression-based age estimation. The distribution of ages at death in Romano-British infants is similar to a natural mortality profile.     

Subadult Age‐at‐Death Estimation From the Human Calcaneus

The estimation of age from subadult skeletal remains relies on the measurement of bones, which when unavailable or damaged hampers the ability to generate a reliable age estimate. The goal of this project was to demonstrate two methods for estimating age at death from the developing human calcaneus. These methods are generated from a sample of 32 European American and African American males and females with ages ranging from 1 to 19 years from the Hamann–Todd Collection. The first method was based on linear regression from two standard measurements of the calcaneus (maximum length and middle breadth); the second was based on transition analysis of fusion states of the calcaneal epiphysis. Results suggest that both methods perform well in estimating subadult age at death. Additional testing with larger contemporary samples would likely increase the accuracy of both methods. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Analysis of Neolithic human remains discovered in southern Italy

The authors describe the discovery of the remains of two unidentified skeletonised individuals in a small town located in southern Italy. The bodies were discovered while workers were preparing to lay an oil pipeline. The two individuals were found at a depth of 2 meters, and in very close proximity to one other. The recovery process of the skeletonised remains and their related findings, carried out by a team of forensic anthropologists and archaeologists, is described here.Archaeological examination determined that the remains date back to the 4th millennium B.C. Forensic anthropological and odontological examinations were performed to determine the biological profile of the skeletal remains by estimation of age and height, as well as the determination of sex. Age determination was performed by the Kerley and Ubelaker (1978, Revision in the microscopic method of estimating age at death in human cortical bone. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol., 49, 545–546) histological method using a 1 mm thick piece of bone tissue taken from the diaphyses of femur in both individuals. Dental age was estimated by examining root transparency. In order to determine the height of the individuals, various research methods based on the dimensional values of particular skeletal structures were applied. DNA analysis showed genotype differences of all the systems as compared to the haplotypes of present day subjects. This provided confirmation that the skeletal remains were from individuals of an ancient population (4th millennium B.C.). In addition, radiocarbon dating provided useful information as to the approximate period of death of the individuals. Interpretation was further enhanced by analysis of various bone fragments from each of the skeletons by high resolution mass spectrometry. 3D computerized imaging was used to analyse the patterns of skull fractures present, which resulted in supporting the hypothesis that the fractures were caused by stoning.     

Estimating age by tooth wear of prehistoric human remains in Brazilian archaeological sites

The occlusal surfaces of 298 permanent maxillary and mandibular molar teeth of prehistoric shellfish‐gatherer subjects from the Piaçaguera and Tenorio sites (4930 to 1875 BP), near the central‐northern coastline of São Paulo, Brazil, were examined for classification of macro‐wear stages. Molar tooth wear is an indication of masticatory activity and can be used in the estimation of age at death. The examination of visual and schematic aspects of occlusal macro‐wear used a visual chart proposed by Brothwell, which includes the three superior and inferior, left and right, permanent molars. Three examiners performed the macroscopic observations twice under the same conditions. The resulting age estimates were compared with previous information of age estimated by skeletal examination. A reduced intra‐ and inter‐observer variation was observed; all re‐examinations indicated discrepancies of less than two years for the upper and lower limit of the age range estimates. The procedure was also considered consistent with the skeletal method used for age estimation of human remains excavated in Brazilian archaeological shell mounds, with a discrepancy of less than 8.22 years between the upper and lower limits of estimates by both methods. Age classification by the occlusal molar wear may be a useful tool for the classification of archaeological findings, mainly when only fragmentary skeletal remains are excavated. The current results indicate that the application of the Brothwell chart for Brazilian archaeological series presented satisfactory results of consistency, and its expanded use may represent a relevant adjunct for research. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A comparison of different non-destructive methods of age estimation in skeletal material

The skeletal remains of unidentifiable persons, recovered in recent years from the churchyard adjoining the House of Correction in Oslo, included 91 instances in which the maxillae and/or mandibles had been preserved, and these were examined. The length of the apical translucent zone in unsectioned teeth and the amount of secondary dentine deposit have been regarded as two of the most reliable factors in odontological age estimation. This study has used two methods, each using one of these factors, on single-rooted teeth from, respectively, 78 and 76 individuals. The distribution of age at death, as estimated from the two dental methods and from anthropological criteria, was then compared with the distribution of age at death of 380 individuals recorded in the church register for the House of Correction. Age calculations from secondary dentine, measured indirectly on dental radiographs of premolars, and estimates based on anthropological criteria both seemed to approximate to the chronological age distribution better than age estimates based on the length of the apical translucent zone. Statistical analyses indicated that all three methods of age estimation were significantly different (p<0.05). When compared with the church register, each method assigned a lower percentage of individuals to the younger and older age-groups and a higher percentage to those in the middle. No statistical difference could be found between the age distribution from the church register and estimates from either anthropological criteria or dental radiographs; but when age estimates based on these two latter methods were compared, 39.5 per cent differed by more than 10 years.     

William O. Douglas Remembered: A Collective Memory by WOD's Law Clerks

William O. Douglas (WOD), who was the longest-serving Justice on the U.S. Supreme Court, was an Associate Justice from April 17, 1939 to November 19, 1975, and thereafter was a retired Justice until his death on January 19, 1980. During this period he employed fifty-four law clerks, one for each Term of the Court except for the 1950, 1967, and 1970 Terms, when he employed two clerks, and starting in the 1971 Term, when he had three clerks until his retirement. Forty-one of his law clerks are still alive, including his first law clerk, David Ginsburg, who at the age of 95 remains mentally and physically active and only recently “retired” from his law practice.     

Taphonomy,life history,and human exploitation of Rhinoceros sinensis at the Middle Pleistocene site of Panxian Dadong,Guizhou, China

Rhinoceros remains are commonly found in Chinese Pleistocene archaeological localities. This study examines the characteristics of the Rhinoceros sinensis sample from Panxian Dadong, a karst cave in the mountains of western Guizhou province, with a mammalian fauna in association with stone artefacts and human remains from the late Middle Pleistocene (MIS 6‐8). The distribution of skeletal elements shows a predominance of foot (metapodial and phalanges) and lower limb (carpals and tarsals) bones, while the dental age‐at‐death profile, constructed using dental eruption and tooth wear data, is characterised by a high frequency of prime age adult teeth. There is little taphonomic evidence for the involvement of non‐human carnivores or natural agencies in the formation of the faunal assemblage. Instead, it appears that human activities were responsible for the unexpected prevalence of prime age adults. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The use of dental criteria for estimating postnatal survival in skeletal remains of infants

Separate cemeteries and/or burial loci for infants have been variously interpreted as reflecting segregation by age, infanticide or even child sacrifice. Attempts to distinguish between these factors rely primarily on the age distribution found. Currently long bone length is the most commonly used method for fetuses and infants in the perinatal period, but its accuracy is affected by the inherent variation in size for age. We show here how to distinguish between death in the perinatal period and that occurring later in infancy through identification of the neonatal line in ground sections of deciduous teeth. The methodology is reviewed and applied to validate estimations of postnatal survival for infant remains recovered from two archaeological sites in Israel.     

Metastatic carcinoma in a 14th–19th century skeleton from Constância (Portugal)

During 2002, the extensive archaeological excavations of the ancient Constância necropolis (Centre of Portugal), dated from 14th–19th centuries, resulted in the exhumation of 151 individuals. Among the several paleopathological cases, a middle‐aged female skeleton with osteolytic lesions in her skull, axial skeleton, upper limbs and femurs was observed. These pathological findings are characterised by an asymmetric pattern with osteolytic focus of distinct size and irregular shape. Some skeletal elements display both osteolytic and osteoblastic lesions. The latter exhibit deposition of fine layers of woven bone. Lesions were observed macroscopically and radiology was used as a complementary method of scrutiny, especially in cases of unclear observation. The case was diagnosed as that of a probable metastatic carcinoma due to the multifocal distribution of the lesions in areas of intense haematopoietic activity, their morphology and some osteoblastic responses, as well as the presence of pathological fractures in the ribs. The skeleton's sex and age at death are in agreement with the proposed diagnostic, constituting the first case of malignant carcinoma detected in non‐identified Portuguese human skeletal remains. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Reassessing the Age,Sex and Metric Variation of Commingled Human Remains from a 1911 Excavation of a Neolithic Passage Tomb Complex in North‐West Ireland

The Neolithic passage tomb complex at Carrowkeel, County Sligo, Ireland, is one of the best preserved and most significant megalithic funerary and ritual landscapes in Europe. The most substantial archaeological excavations at the complex were undertaken in 1911, from which a relatively large sample of commingled unburnt and cremated human remains from seven chambered passage tombs was recovered. Although the archaeological value of this material is reduced as its spatial and stratigraphic context is uncertain, the skeletal remains have the potential to provide insights into how these monuments were used. This study is a quantitative reassessment of that osteological material from the passage tombs excavated in 1911, with a focus on a contextual analysis of the remains. Overall, the age‐at‐death and sex ratios do not indicate any demographic differentiation between monuments in selecting locations for the deposition of bodies, and there is no clear evidence to suggest any selectiveness of certain skeletal elements took place. There may however have been a differentiating age and gender aspect in terms of the unburnt versus cremated bone surface depositions within the passage tombs, as a higher proportion of 5+ years non‐adults and adult females were present in the cremated material. By using the log‐ratio metric scaling technique on the cremated adult material, a statistically significant difference in skeletal dimensions is observed between individual passage tombs; however, it is unclear how significant this disparity is from a biocultural point of view. Despite apparent methodological difficulties in assessing an archaeological bone assemblage collected by early 20th‐century antiquarians, the material can still yield new knowledge about the rituals conducted at Carrowkeel. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Modeling social interaction: Marital miscegenation in colonial Spanish America

Abstract

In this article, the author constructs new life tables for the white population of the United States in each decade between 1790 and 1900. Drawing from several recent studies, he suggests best estimates of life expectancy at age 20 for each decade. These estimates are fitted to new standards derived from the 1900–1902 rural and 1900–1902 overall death registration area life tables using a two-parameter logit model with fixed slope. The resulting decennial life tables more accurately represent sex- and age-specific mortality rates while capturing known mortality trends.     

Microscopic age determination of human skeletons including an unknown but calculable variable

Histomorphometric semi-automatic image analysis of cross-sections of 101 femoral diaphyseal bone sections were performed to reconsider to what degree osteon remodelling in the outer cortex is affected by age. The data were analysed statistically using the generalized least squares method. The model estimation, which includes the covariance matrix of four single equation residuals, improves the accuracy of age determination. The standard deviation, however, of age prediction remains 12.58 years. An experimental split of the data was made in order to demonstrate that the use of subgroups gives a false impression of higher precision of age determination. The present study demonstrates that determination of age at death through microscopic bone morphometry is considerably less precise than generally stated in the literature.     

Health status of the Venda,a post‐antibiotic community in rural South Africa

This paper examines the health status of a rural African community during the emergence of Westernisation. A total of 157 skeletons, which included 120 adults (55 males and 51 females), 37 juveniles, and 14 individuals of unknown age, were analysed. Date of death ranged from 1910 to 1999, with the majority of individuals (52%) being buried after 1960. The bones were examined for infectious diseases, trauma and degenerative changes. More than half of the individuals in the sample had no pathological lesions on their skeletal remains. No cribra orbitalia was present. One case of leprosy and three cases of osteomyelitis were recorded. The most common findings were osteophytes on the vertebral bodies (syndesmophytes) (17%) and osteoarthritis (7%). The low occurrence of chronic disease is unexpected given that malaria was endemic and intestinal worms were common. Explanations for these results include adequate intake of iron from dietary sources, death from acute infectious diseases, administration of antibiotics, and poor preservation of adult skeletal remains. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Two Late Neolithic human skeletons,a recent discovery in the Netherlands

Recently, two Late Neolithic skeletons belonging to the Single Grave Culture (ca. 4500 BP) were discovered in the province of North-Holland. It is the first time that such complete and well-preserved skeletons of this age have been found in The Netherlands. Both skeletons were subjected to an extensive and close examination in order to gain more information about these two individuals and their way of life. Application of different methods resulted in the determination of the sex (a male and a female), the age at death and the stature of the skeletons. Pathological features could be established in the female skeleton by means of radiography. The male skeleton was incomplete owing to animal scavenging. The tooth marks on the bones were studied in an attempt to discover the circumstances of death. In order to obtain information about the diet of the two individuals, the dental microwear and the remains of plaque and calculus were investigated. This investigation demonstrates the importance of physical anthropological studies with regard to the reconstruction of life in the past.     

Embryotomy in the 19th Century of Central Italy

An enormous earthquake in L'Aquila in 2009 brought to light human bodies buried in the underground rooms of the medieval St. John the Evangelist church (Casentino, Central Italy). Among the remains, we discovered a human fetus, whose post‐cranial bones were wrapped in bandages and cranial bones were reallocated inside a sort of hood. Anthropometrical investigation revealed an age at death of 29 ± 2 weeks of pregnancy for the little mummy. Radiograph analysis of the fetus showed that the skull was dissected and disconnected from the vertebral column, and the post‐cranial bones were completely disarticulated from the axial skeleton. The body was reassembled in a way of anatomic connection at a later stage. This mummified fetus dated to ad 1840 showed paleopathological evidence of a possible embryotomy and could be a rare and unquestionable case of embryotomy in archaeological context. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Fusion status of the jugular growth plate: An aid for age at death determination

To assess the feasibility of the fusion (synostosis) status of the jugular growth plate as an age at death indicator, a series of 98 skulls of documented age and sex from the so-called ‘Utrecht collection’ was examined. Ages at death in the series ranged from 14 to 92 years. Only specimens that could be inspected bilaterally were taken into account. According to the few but conflicting data from the literature, fusion happens at 16–18 years, or starts at ca. 25 years of age. In our sample no fusions were seen before the age of 22 years. Unilateral fusions were found only in the age range 22–34 years. At ages above 34 years in females and above 36 years in males all jugular growth plates were fused bilaterally. These results indicate that examination of the fusion status of the jugular growth plate is of use in age at death determination.     

Perinatal infant death at the Roman villa site at Hambleden,Buckinghamshire, England

The aim of the current work is to investigate whether perinatal infant burials at Hambleden Roman villa (1st–4th century AD), England, more likely represent infanticides, as has been contended by earlier workers, or natural deaths. Previous work has noted that when infanticide is practiced it is normally carried out immediately after birth and so will produce an age at death distribution tightly clustered around the gestational age of a full-term infant. By contrast, natural deaths in the perinatal period produce a rather flatter age distribution. In foetal and perinatal infants, long-bone length bears a close relationship to gestational age. The distribution of age at death in the Hambleden perinatal infants is compared with those from Roman Ashkelon, Israel, where earlier work showed evidence for infanticide, and Mediaeval Wharram Percy, England, where previous studies demonstrated a perinatal age at death distribution consistent with natural deaths. The comparisons between the sites are undertaken using four different methodologies: direct comparison of distributions of long-bone lengths, and comparison of ages at death estimated using two different regression methods and using a Bayesian methodology. Results consistently show a strong clustering in the Hambleden age distribution at an age approximately corresponding to a full-term infant. In this respect they resemble results from Ashkelon and differ from those from Wharram Percy. This was interpreted as supporting the suggestion of infanticide at Hambleden.