Dative for Accusative Case Interchange in Epistolary Formulas in Greek Papyrus Letters

Greek papyrus letters preserve not only instances of the replacement of the dative case; they also show the use of the dative instead of the accusative case as direct object and disjoint infinitival subject. This interchange is mostly found in epistolary phrases, namely the salutation formula (?σπ?ζομα? σε) and the initial (ε?χομα? σε ?για?νειν) and final (?ρρ?σθα? σε ε?χομαι) health wishes. The phonetic similarity of the pronouns might have created the circumstances for case confusion. Contamination of the constructions reflects the difficulties of the scribes to construct conservative epistolary phrases and, thereby, diachronic phraseological variation might reflect language change. In salutation formulas, the use of a dative Addressee could be explained by analogical overextension from the category of communication verbs taking a dative complement. The decline of the accusative and infinitive construction might be one of the reasons why the accusative disjoint infinitival subject is replaced by the dative case in health wishes.     

Monuments on a migrating Nile

River courses migrate, but many Egyptologists plot the present-day River Nile on maps of the valley in archaeological times. This may have misled interpretations of ancient monuments and settlements. We show a river migrating rapidly on historical timescales in the Luxor region, sweeping > 5 km across the valley at rates on the order of 2–3 km per 1000 years. Satellite elevation data (SRTM), processed by a novel method, and Landsat imagery are used to trace ancient river levees and extend trends present in 200 years of archive maps thousands of years into the past. This supplements observations by Ptolemy (121–141 AD) and places local geo-archaeological studies in a wider spatial and temporal context. Satellite data are demonstrated to be a relatively quick and easy constraint upon ancient river courses, and a basis for investigations along the Egyptian Nile, even in logistically inaccessible regions.     

The strategic logic of Islamic State information operations

Drawing on English and Arabic Islamic State (IS) communiqués produced by its central media units, wilayat information offices and broader supporter base, this study examines the strategic logic of IS information operations (IO). It argues that the overarching purpose of IS's IO campaign is to shape the perceptions and polarise the support of audiences via messages that interweave appeals to pragmatic and perceptual factors. Pragmatic factors—such as security, stability and livelihood—are leveraged in IS messaging by promoting the efficacy of its politico-military campaign and denigrating its enemies’ efforts via rational-choice (logic of consequence) appeals. Perceptual factors—which are tied to the interplay of in-group, Other, crisis and solution constructs—are leveraged via identity-choice (logic of appropriateness) appeals that frame IS as the champion of Sunni Muslims (the in-group identity), its enemies as Others complicit in Sunni perceptions of crisis, and IS as the only hope for solving this malaise. With this approach, IS seeks to resonate its message across a diverse ‘glocal’ constituency and supercharge supporters towards action. IS simultaneously targets its enemies with messaging that manipulates the inherent dualities underlying perceptual and pragmatic factors, vigorously counters criticisms and ‘baits’ opponents into ill-conceived IO responses.     

Prehistoric radio‐ulnar synostosis: implications for function

Proximal radio‐ulnar synostosis (RUS) may occur congenitally, either as an isolated condition or as part of a syndrome, or it may occur as a secondary complication of forearm trauma. We provide a key for the differential diagnosis of congenital versus traumatic RUS, and for differentiation between types of congenital RUS. Congenital cases (CRUS) include absence of fracture, radial head abnormalities, radial shaft bowing, and absence of a sigmoid notch, whereas post‐traumatic RUS results from either radial neck fracture or evulsion of the biceps brachii, followed by ossification of the resulting haematoma or of the interosseous (IO) membrane. Congenital cases include those which result from incompetent differentiation of the single mesenchymal mass that gives rise to the radius and ulna (Type I) and those that result from radial head dislocation in utero, resulting usually from humeral or ulnar defects (Type II). Type II CRUS can be differentiated by the presence of radial overgrowth, among other factors. Following these guidelines, we describe and compare the morphology of three congenital cases from North America. Two present bony fusions and one a functional fusion with radial overgrowth. In each case, CRUS significantly limits both supination and pronation. Despite differences among the cases, several morphological accommodations are shared as a result of fixation in the neutral (semi‐pronated) position. These changes include the ventral migration of the IO crests of the ulnae and enlargement of the dorsal tubercles of the radius. Understanding the pattern of accommodations made in the face of compromised function ultimately increases our understanding of the patterns of growth in normal functional regimes. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Measurements of the angular distribution of auroral-zone bremsstrahlung in the middle atmosphere

Measurements of auroral-zone X-rays during rocket flights over Alaska in March 1978 have been analyzed to obtain angular distributions of electron bremsstrahlung in the atmosphere at altitudes of 45–65 km. The rockets carried passively collimated sodium iodide scintillation detectors which recorded X-rays in four energy ranges: > 5 keV, > 10 keV, > 20 keV and > 40 keV. Widespread precipitation events typical of post-breakup auroral activity have been examined. These measurements were made possible on two rocket flights: for one, large amplitude oscillations of the payload with respect to the vertical following parachute deployment allowed sampling of the angular distribution in the upper hemisphere (downward propagating X-rays), while on the other rocket, failure of the parachute system resulted in a tumbling motion of the payload which permitted measurements in both hemispheres (nadir/zenith). The observations reveal an angular distribution for X-rays in the atmosphere at depths (45–65 km) well below the production region, which is approximately isotropic in both hemispheres but with energy dependent ratios of the up/down components; the upward (backscattered) component is a small fraction (1–10%) of the total X-ray flux for 5–40 keV at the greatest altitude examined (65 km). At energies below 40 keV the energy spectrum for downward propagating X-rays hardens rapidly with increasing atmospheric depth, due to the photoelectric absorption at low energies, whereas the backscattered spectrum hardens only slightly in the middle atmosphere, maintaining an equilibrium-like form of diminishing intensity with depth. The present experimental results, apparently unique, are compared with theoretical calculations concerning the angular distribution of atmospheric bremsstrahlung.     

Electrodynamic response of the middle atmosphere to auroral pulsations

On the nights of 21 and 28 October 1987, two Nike Orion payloads (NASA 31.066 and 31.067) were launched from Andøya, Norway, as part of the MAC/EPSILON campaign, to study the effect of auroral energetics on the middle atmosphere. Each payload carried detectors to measure relativistic electrons from 0.1 to 1.0MeV in 12 differential energy channels, and bremsstrahlung X-rays from >5 to >80keV in 5 integral channels. In addition, instrumentation to measure bulk ion properties and electric fields was also carried by these and/or near simultaneous flights. Flight 31.066 was launched during the recovery phase of a moderate magnetic substorm, during relatively stable auroral conditions. Flight 31.067 was launched during highly active post-break-up conditions during which Pc 5 pulsations (> 150s period) were in progress. The energetic radiation of the first event was composed almost entirely of relativistic electrons below 200 keV with negligible contributions from bremsstrahlung X-rays, while the radiation of the second event was dominated by much softer electrons ( < 100 kcV), which produced high X-ray fluxes that exceeded the cosmic ray background as an ionizing source down to altitudes below 30 km. Simultaneous conductivity measurements during both events show consistency with the ionizing radiations, with the pulsation event producing free electrons down to 55 km. far below their expected altitude range during night-time. These comparisons are discussed to evaluate the impact of such events on the middle atmosphere.     

The Influence of Katharevousa on the Phonology of Modern Greek

Abstract

Much has been written on Greek diglossia and the language struggle (between katharevousa and dhimotiki ). Defenders of katharevousa have emphasized the importance of the language's roots in ancient Greek, opponents of katharevousa have emphasized the idea that the Greek language should be first and foremost ‘the language of the people’. More recently, the focus of the discussion has shifted to what constitutes ‘true’ dhimotiki and the extent to which certain katharevousa elements are acceptable to the modern language; see for instance G. Babiniotis, <inline-graphic href="splitsection5_in1.tif"/><inline-graphic href="splitsection5_in2.tif"/>(Athens 1979) and A Linguistic Approach to the ‘Language Question’ in Greece (BMGS 5, 1979), E. Kriaras' reactions to Babiniotis' views in his ‘<inline-graphic href="splitsection5_in3.tif"/><inline-graphic href="splitsection5_in4.tif"/>(Athens 1979) and Mesevrinos' H <inline-graphic href="splitsection5_in5.tif"/><inline-graphic href="splitsection5_in6.tif"/>(Nicosia 1973). All of these writers are more concerned with determining what should be considered correct or acceptable to the modern language than with analysing actual usage. In general, very little of the discussion is concerned with the spoken language. M. Setatos' article (<inline-graphic href="splitsection5_in7.tif"/><inline-graphic href="splitsection5_in8.tif"/>1973) is particularly interesting because it sets out to analyse the place of katharevousa in the modern language (both written and spoken) rather than arguing for or against katharevousa. Setatos has also written the most detailed analysis of modern Greek phonology (<inline-graphic href="splitsection5_in9.tif"/>, Athens 1974). Other interesting articles on katharevousa elements in the spoken language have been written by Philippaki-Warburton, Tsopanakis, and Petrounias. However, there has in fact been scarcely any empirical research on modern Greek phonology and the extent to which spoken Greek has been influenced by katharevousa. It is perhaps understandable, given the social and historical context, that there has been so much emphasis on theory; the priority has been establishing norms on an acceptable theoretical basis, in the midst of the confusion caused by diglossia, and the question ‘what is actual practice in spoken Greek now, at the end of the twentieth century?’ has had to wait.     

Changemakers and change agents: encouraging students as researchers through Changemaker’s programmes

Abstract

This paper examines the role played by a student-organized research conference in the age of research-led teaching and active learning. Drawing on our experiences of organizing two departmental conferences in Geography in March 2016 and March 2017, we begin to outline how institutional support and funding for student-led “Changemakers” projects can not only introduce students to specific aspects of research (in the case of our conference, to disseminating and communicating research findings), but also encourage collaboration and mutual support outside of formal staff-student hierarchies of teaching, learning and marking.     

Chemical analysis of 17th century Millefiori glasses excavated in the Monastery of Sta. Clara-a-Velha,Portugal: comparison with Venetian and façon-de-Venise production

A set of ten Millefiori glass fragments dating from the 17th century, originated from archaeological excavations carried out at the Monastery of Sta. Clara-a-Velha (Coimbra, Portugal), were characterized by X-ray electron probe microanalysis (EPMA), Raman microscopy and UV–Visible absorption spectroscopy. All glasses are of soda-lime-silica type. The use of coastal plant ash is suggested by the relatively high content of MgO, K₂O and P₂O₅, as well as by the presence of chlorine. Tin oxide or calcium antimonate were the opacifiers used in the opaque glasses, cobalt in the blue glasses, copper in the turquoise glasses, iron in the yellow and greenish glasses, and iron and copper were found in the opaque red and aventurine glasses. Based on the concentrations of alumina and silica four different sources of silica were identified, allowing the classification of the glasses into the following compositional groups: low alumina (<2 wt%), which includes a sub-group of cristallo samples with SiO₂ > 70 wt%, medium alumina (2–3 wt%), high alumina (3–6 wt%) and very high alumina (>6 wt%). Comparison with genuine Venetian and façon-de-Venise compositions showed that two fragments are of Venetian production, one of Venetian or Spanish production and the remaining are of unknown provenance. In two fragments the glass of the decoration is probably Venetian or Spanish but the glass used in the body is also of unknown provenance.     

Long‐term chemical evolution and modification of continental basement brines – a field study from the Schwarzwald,SW Germany

Highly saline, deep‐seated basement brines are of major importance for ore‐forming processes, but their genesis is controversial. Based on studies of fluid inclusions from hydrothermal veins of various ages, we reconstruct the temporal evolution of continental basement fluids from the Variscan Schwarzwald (Germany). During the Carboniferous (vein type i), quartz–tourmaline veins precipitated from low‐salinity (<4.5wt% NaCl + CaCl₂), high‐temperature (≤390°C) H₂O‐NaCl‐(CO₂‐CH₄) fluids with Cl/Br mass ratios = 50–146. In the Permian (vein type ii), cooling of H₂O‐NaCl‐(KCl‐CaCl₂) metamorphic fluids (T ≤ 310°C, 2–4.5wt% NaCl + CaCl₂, Cl/Br mass ratios = 90) leads to the precipitation of quartz‐Sb‐Au veins. Around the Triassic–Jurassic boundary (vein type iii), quartz–haematite veins formed from two distinct fluids: a low‐salinity fluid (similar to (ii)) and a high‐salinity fluid (T = 100–320°C, >20wt% NaCl + CaCl₂, Cl/Br mass ratios = 60–110). Both fluids types were present during vein formation but did not mix with each other (because of hydrogeological reasons). Jurassic–Cretaceous veins (vein type iv) record fluid mixing between an older bittern brine (Cl/Br mass ratios ~80) and a younger halite dissolution brine (Cl/Br mass ratios >1000) of similar salinity, resulting in a mixed H₂O‐NaCl‐CaCl₂ brine (50–140°C, 23–26wt% NaCl + CaCl₂, Cl/Br mass ratios = 80–520). During post‐Cretaceous times (vein type v), the opening of the Upper Rhine Graben and the concomitant juxtaposition of various aquifers, which enabled mixing of high‐ and low‐salinity fluids and resulted in vein formation (multicomponent fluid H₂O‐NaCl‐CaCl₂‐(SO₄‐HCO₃), 70–190°C, 5–25wt% NaCl‐CaCl₂ and Cl/Br mass ratios = 2–140). The first occurrence of highly saline brines is recorded in veins that formed shortly after deposition of halite in the Muschelkalk Ocean above the basement, suggesting an external source of the brine's salinity. Hence, today's brines in the European basement probably developed from inherited evaporitic bittern brines. These were afterwards extensively modified by fluid–rock interaction on their migration paths through the crystalline basement and later by mixing with younger meteoric fluids and halite dissolution brines.     

The use of reflectance values for the interpretation of natural and anthropogenic charcoal assemblages

Charcoal assemblages occur in both natural and archaeological settings. Cell wall reflectance values of charcoal in polished blocks under oil provide a proxy for temperature of formation. This paper aims to (1) determine whether wildfire charcoals and anthropological charcoals from various pyrotechnical activities can be distinguished using reflectance data and (2) establish if re-charring (i.e. use of charcoal fuel) can be recognised in the archaeological record through analysis of laboratory-produced re-charred charcoals and charcoals from an experimental iron smelt and traditional bronze casting which utilised charcoal fuel. Reflectance frequency data from assemblages representing burning of charcoal, in this case of iron smelting and bronze casting, indicates temperatures from above the mean value of charcoal production (>475°C) up to the maximum temperature reached in the subsequent process (i.e. >475 to >1,100°C). In contrast, wildfire charcoals showed a range of values including material with barely measurable reflectance (minimum values from 0.06% to 0.56%Ro) to maximum reflectance values varying from 1.65%Ro (Tilford) to 3.8%Ro (Zacca). The mean wildfire reflectance indicated temperatures in the range 325–400°C, which can therefore clearly be distinguished from that of the charcoal burning processes. The laboratory-produced re-charred charcoals take on the reflectance value of the highest temperatures experienced; reflectance values were not constrained by the original temperature of formation. High temperatures are most easily achievable by the burning of charcoal fuel, and hence high reflectance charcoals are likely to represent re-charred charcoal. Therefore, this quantitative reflectance method can be used in archaeology to determine the minimum temperature of formation of charcoals in anthropological processes which involve fire, can indicate the likelihood of use of charcoal or wood as fuel and can distinguish between an assemblage of high temperature anthropogenic charcoals and charcoals formed from natural wildfire.     

The chronology of Rebetiko – a reconsideration of the evidence

Abstract

In this note I would like to discuss the problems presented to researchers by the almost complete lack of reliable information concerning the dates of pre-war rebetika recordings. It is unfortunately no exaggeration to say that with very few exceptions the published dates of older rebetika recordings are not to be trusted, and they have not been based on factual evidence. We are all of us familiar with the well-known reissues of older discs which as a rule never contain the slightest information about the original 78 recordings. A crass example is the series <inline-graphic href="splitsection11_in1.tif"/>whose six volumes do not furnish anything in the way of chronological or label information about the reissued records. There are, moreover, other reissues with more serious pretensions, but no less disappointing. For example the various reissues of the ‘Center for the Study of Rebetika’ where we are given extensive notes and illuminating discussions of musicological problems (at least on some of the early reissues) but not a word about the date, label, catalogue and master numbers of the original recordings. Even in the case of the best reissue so far of pre-war rebetika, Martin Schwartz's ‘Greek-Oriental’ (Folklyric 9033) the information provided in the extensive sleeve notes is not wholly satisfactory. The editor has given us the information found nowhere else on similar reissues, namely the original catalogue and masternumbers from which it should be possible to date the recordings. For instance, Schwartz notes that Charal. Panagis' recording <inline-graphic href="splitsection11_in2.tif"/>appeared originally on Greek Parlophone with the catalogue B 21751 and the masternumber 101476. He does not say, however, when he thinks the record was made, although he has all the information needed. From what we know of Parlophone catalogue numbers it seems certain that the record was issued in early 1934. On the same LP we also have Roza Eskenazi's <inline-graphic href="splitsection11_in3.tif"/>(Greek HMV AO 2147); nor in this case does Schwartz attempt to give a date, although it is plain that the record was issued in 1934.     

Analytical characterization of lacquer objects excavated from a Chu tomb in China

This work presents the results of an investigation of the lacquer objects excavated from a Chu tomb in China (Warring States, 481–221 BC). This study is engaged in the examination of the methods and the materials used for the urushi coating on the objects. X-Ray fluorescence and Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy Dispersive Using X-Ray (SEM/EDX) analyses were applied for the pigment identification. The results show that vermilion was for the red colour, while carbon black was for the black colour. Pyrolysis gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) was applied for the characterization of the lacquer resulting that it is based on urushi. The possibility to classify the drying oil (tung or linseed oil) present in the lacquer is highlighted and discussed in this paper. Py-GC/MS with in-situ hydrolysis and methylation reagent tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH) were performed on reference materials of linseed oil and tung oil as well as on the lacquer object samples. The results show that it is possible to unambiguously identify the drying oil, in our case, linseed oil was identified to retard the rate of hardening.     

Contribution of strontium to the human diet from querns and millstones: an experiment in digestive strontium isotope uptake

The question of whether rock grit ingested unintentionally from querns, metates or millstones, or deliberately through pica or geophagy, is bioaccessible in the human gut has not been addressed in archaeological strontium (Sr) isotope studies. This study employed the unified bioaccessibility method and determined that ingested rock grit can provide bioaccessible ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr, but that unintentional consumption is unlikely to constitute > 1% of the diet (by mass) and will not significantly change, that is, by > 0.001, human skeletal ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr. The use of locally or non‐locally sourced querns or millstones will not affect the interpretation of archaeological human ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr values in Britain.     

On the metrics and origin of Rig-Vedic ná ‘like,as’

Summary Beginning with the synchronic metrical distribution of ná and ná ‘NEG’, we attempted to formulate, first, certain principles of Rig-Vedic exegesis (which we applied to several obscure or hitherto imperfectly understood passages), and second, a theory concerning the origin of the comparative function of ná. Unlike previous explanations, the theory described above accounts in a systematic way for the formal, functional, and metrical features of ná. We considered, in addition, the following theoretical points: possible implications of ná phraseology for the historical analysis of Rig-Vedic meters; the lack of universal principles, as yet, for predicting the direction and nature of secondary marking in the case of functional split of a particle; the interaction of secondary phraseological patterns with original phraseology, resulting in synchronic irregularity in metrical distribution. Finally, we suggested that the syntactic behavior of ná and ná ‘NEG’ confirms the theory presented here concerning the origin of ná.     

Application of a Physics-Based Simulation Model to Examine Post-Earthquake Fire Spread

For 50 years, post-earthquake fire spread models used the basic empirical, macro approach developed by Hamada in 1951 Hamada, M. 1951. On Fire Spreading Velocity in Disasters, Tokyo: Sagami Shobo. (in Japanese) [Google Scholar]. Recently, however, a few physics-based models have emerged in which different modes of fire spread (e.g., radiation, branding) are modeled separately, more realistically, and in more detail. Using a case study for Los Angeles, this article illustrates how a new physics-based model developed by the authors can be used to estimate how much, how fast, and where fires spread, and also to provide insight into how fires spread and factors that influence fire spread.     

Late Preceramic Forager–Herders from the Copacabana Peninsula in the Titicaca Basin of Bolivia: A Bioarchaeological Analysis

The Titicaca Basin of Peru and Bolivia has been occupied by humans for millennia and was home to one of the first major state societies in the Andes. Many foundations of state power, however, developed much earlier, during the Late Preceramic/Terminal Archaic Period (3000 – 1500 BC), when people initially began herding, marking territories, and creating new metallurgy technology. We present a skeletal analysis of 14 individuals dating between 3000 and 1500 BC from Muruqullu, an archaeological site on the Copacabana Peninsula of Bolivia. These are the first Preceramic burials documented for the peninsula and contribute to the relatively small sample of Preceramic bodies from the Andean highlands more broadly. From this sample, we suggest that highland foragers and early herders suffered little nutritional stress and had limited violent interactions, perhaps related to a relatively mobile lifestyle and utilisation of lake resources. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Joint controlled fluid flow patterns and iron mass transfer in Jurassic Navajo Sandstone,Southern Utah,USA

The Jurassic Navajo Sandstone of Grand Staircase Escalante National Monument (GSENM), Utah, exhibits a broad range of iron oxide/oxyhydroxide concretionary geometries that record a complex paragenetic history of the reservoir. The concretionary geometries are as follows: (i) common macroconcretions (>5 mm in diameter), (ii) ubiquitous microconcretions (<5 mm in diameter), (iii) localized iron oxide/oxyhydroxide‐lined northeast‐striking joints, and (iv) loopy asymmetrical mineralization and banded precipitation patterns (Liesegang bands) associated with the joints. Spheroidal concretion geometries typically indicate diffusive mass transfer, whereas asymmetrical mineralization represents advective directional flow. Liesegang bands parallel to asymmetrical mineralization denote a diffusive mass transfer component perpendicular to the principal flow direction. Careful study of concretionary geometries and their cross‐cutting relationships establishes a relative timing of precipitation and mobilization events. Macroconcretions formed post‐Laramide (<55 Ma), prior to and independent of the Miocene joints. The joints provided conduits for later oxidizing fluids that precipitated iron oxide/oxyhydroxide lining on the joint faces. Advective mass transfer overprinted the area with preferentially cemented flow lines (asymmetrical mineralization) less than 10 Ma, coincident with development of a hydraulic low to the southeast of the region (Colorado River downcutting). Certain trace elements are genetically tied to concretion formation, and evaluation of trace elements establishes precursor mineral phases. Enriched uranium concentrations in concretions (relative to the host rock) and low/undetectable sulfur concentrations in both host rock and concretions suggest that iron oxyhydroxide was a primary precipitate rather than a reduced iron mineral (i.e., pyrite or siderite) that later oxidized. Enrichment of Ni and As in concretions functions as fingerprints for diagenetic concretion formation when determining genesis of ambiguous iron oxide/oxyhydroxide spherules such as the remotely sensed ‘blueberries’ on Mars. Similarities between Mars and Utah spherules such as geometry, in situ spacing and volumetric density suggest that Mars spherules precipitated via a geochemically self‐organized nucleation pattern in diffusive chemical reaction fronts.     

A new ornamented artefact from Poland: final palaeolithic symbolism from an environmental perspective

An ornamented artefact made of antler, found in the environs of ?widwin (Pomerania, NW Poland), was subject to structural and environmental analysis. Radiocarbon dating (10?700 ± 60 BP or 10?910–10?680 cal. BC) places it in the Final Palaeolithic, at the end of Weichselian (boundary of the Allerød and Younger Dryas). The surface of the artefact bears a complex ornament of zigzag lines and an anthropomorphic drawing, representing most probably a woman with spread legs. Palynological analysis of the deposit in which the object was found indicates forest communities (pine-birch forests) with some open areas, in a cool climate. Ultrastructural examination points to the elk Alces alces (Linnaeus, 1758) as the source species; the antler was at the stage of intense growth which indicates that the elk was killed or died in the spring-summer period. The antler was large, and the object made of it was used for a long time, playing a role in rituals and symbolic culture of a hunting group. The ornamentation shows an affinity to the early Mesolithic art and makes it possible to better trace the relations between the hunters of the late Pleistocene and those of the early Holocene.     

Particle size distribution of lithic assemblages and taphonomy of Palaeolithic sites

Lithic debris derived from knapping and used tools can be assimilated to simple sedimentary particles that may undergo size sorting when exposed to geomorphic processes such as streamflow or overland flow. Sorting can be identified by comparing the size distribution of archaeological assemblages to that of experimental core reduction sequences. A new database including different types of raw material (mainly flint and quartzite) and Palaeolithic debitage (blade, Levallois, discoid, on anvil, and shaping) has been built for this purpose. Palaeoeskimo data have also been added to illustrate microlithic industries. For all the debitages and raw materials, the particle size of knapping products >2 mm in width fits with a power-law distribution and shows only minor fluctuations, the range of which is always <15% between experiments (all steps of the chaîne opératoire included up to the final tool). A lithic assemblage derived from block/core knapping or blank/preform production will display a particle size distribution close to the experimental distributions if not subsequently modified. Modifications may originate either from sedimentary processes or from anthropogenic factors. To help distinguishing amongst these, data on the impact of both water flows on sedimentary particles or experimental assemblages, and anthropogenic processes such as importation-exportation (of core, preforms or finished tools) or uneven spatial distribution of the different steps in core reduction and tool production within a site, are reviewed. By contrast to anthropogenic modifications, sedimentary processes are generally typified by strong impoverishment in or selective accumulation of fine-grained (<10 mm) artefacts together with a low intra-site variability (spatial homogenization) or a downslope size trend. Archaeological case studies taken from French Palaeolithic site are then detailed. Evidence for lithic redistribution implies that care should be taken in archaeological site analysis since sorting may impact significantly the initial techno-typological balance of the assemblage.