Third-world development: urbanizing for the future

This article reviews some issues reflected in the 1996 UN Habitat II agenda and recent research on urbanization. The themes of the 1996 Habitat conference were urban development, urban poverty, and governance, civil society, and social capital. It is expected that over 50% of total world population will live in cities in the year 2000. Cities are viewed both as engines of economic growth and centers of severe economic, environmental, and social problems. There is some disagreement about whether cities are rational economic structures or what the World Bank's urban agenda is and its relationship with macroeconomic policy. Discussions of global urban issues are criticized for their neglect of issues of equity and poverty, cultural diversity, and identity and representation. Habitat II also stressed urban sustainability. There is growing recognition that urban management involves more than the "Brown Agenda" of environmental and physical aspects of urban growth. Recent studies identify how politics and power affect people's access to basic urban services. Urban economic activity can also contribute to environmental problems. Urban growth affects the provision of health services. Although there is not a consensus on the role of cities in expanding economic and social development and the best management practices, there is sufficient evidence to indicate that urban processes are varied throughout the developing world. The links between urban and rural areas differentiate cities and expose the need to understand the role of intermediate urban areas surrounding and between larger cities. Poverty has become increasingly urbanized, but the extent of poverty is unknown. Habitat II was an unprecedented effort to engage nongovernment groups, local government staff, trade unions, and the private sector and to emphasize community participation. Networks of trust and reciprocity are key to solving poverty, inequality, and disempowerment problems.     

中国城市化水平的综合判断

在测度和评价城市化水平高低时应该对人口城市化水平和城市人口绝对规模进行综合判断。学界通常用市区非农业人口口径来计算城市化水平,对城市外来人口考虑不够。对这种偏小的口径进行修正后发现中国的城市化水平至多略低于同等收入下的国际城市化水平。从城市人口与城市经济的适应程度看,中国的城市劳动生产率与发展状况类似的国家相比有偏低的倾向。因此,与流行的看法相反,中国的城市化水平与经济发展相适应的。笔者认为中国城市的存量部分已经"人满为患",未来城市化的着力点应是城市的增量部分,包括现有城市规模的扩大和新城市的设置。应进行户籍制度、土地制度、创业制度等制度创新,为城市发展提供宽松的外部环境。     

Rural China in ruins: The rush to urbanize China's countryside is opening a moral battleground (Respond to this article at http://www.therai.org.uk/at/debate)

China has officially become a predominantly urban country, with over 50% of the population now registered as urban residents. Its urbanization process has been described as the most managed in human history. The Chinese government manages the building of new cities, regulates the housing of displaced people and controls squatters. As an historically poorer area, the west of China has been the target of ongoing efforts at infrastructural development. Describing urbanization as managed however masks the conflicts and contradictions involved in a process which is far from smooth. Although villagers are usually seen to be largely the powerless victims of these initiatives, it is clear that many try to take advantage of the situation, while others are unable to do so. Based on recent fieldwork and eight years of visits to one village undergoing urbanization, this article looks at the complex dynamics involved and at the moral battleground which they lay bare.     

珠江三角洲中小城市的城市化研究

本文通过对中小城市在珠江三角洲城市化进程中的发展地位、发展特点、城市化形成机制以及珠江三角洲未来发展环境等方面进行分析,得出:①中小城市的发展完善了珠江三角洲的城镇体系;②中小城市对城市化水平的贡献率远远大于大城市;③未来城市发展的动力机制将更趋多样性,将会出现更加理想的城市化空间发展模式。另外,针对珠江三角洲未来中小城市的发展,本文提出了相应的对策。     

江苏省城镇化发展协调度评价与地区差异分析

将城镇化分解成人口城镇化、经济城镇化、土地城镇化和社会城镇化4部分,且认为这4部分应处在协调耦合状态,用TOPSIS法对江苏省城镇化发展协调度进行评价,之后对评价结果的地区差异进行分析,以对城镇发展政策制定提供依据。研究表明:常州和扬州在优质协调区;南京、镇江、苏州和无锡在良好协调区,且土地城镇化相对滞后,说明城镇土地高效集约利用;徐州、淮安和南通在基本协调区,徐州与淮安土地城镇化过快,社会城镇化滞后,表明城镇土地粗放低效利用,同时忽视公共服务产品供给,南通土地城镇化滞后,表明城镇扩张缓慢,城镇化的土地代价水平较低;泰州和盐城在轻度失调区,盐城经济城镇化滞后,泰州土地城镇化滞后,土地集约利用强度大,城镇发展选择的是一种精明增长路径;连云港和宿迁在中度失调区,土地城镇化明显快于其它城镇化,城镇发展土地代价水平高,具有相当过渡性损失。     

中国城市职能结构的特征研究

本文利用1999年的城市数据库和纳尔逊分类方法分析了我国城市职能的基本特征,对各行业的就业频率分布曲线进行了分析,并比较了不同城市规模、不同地域城市职能差异,认为我国城市工业职能较强,就业比重较大;城市工业专业分工程度较低;我国城市职能随城市规模变化出现一定变化规律,建筑业比重随城市规模的增大而减小,科教文卫等服务业随着规模的增大而增大;我国城市职能结构表现在空间上的差异是东部城市工业职能较强,西部城市行政、科教等服务业就业比重较高。     

信息通讯技术(ICT)与城市地理研究综述

信息通讯技术（ICT）已成为现代城市发展的重要推动力,对城市居民空间行为产生了深刻影响。本文在对国内外相关文献梳理的基础上,从城镇化、城镇体系、城市活动空间、虚拟空间与实体空间、智慧城市等方面对ICT与城市地理领域的关联性研究进行了综述。研究发现,ICT通过促进产业结构高级化协同城镇化发展,通过改变流动性、邻近性改变城镇体系与城市空间结构。同时基于虚拟空间—实体空间,构建信息通讯技术背景下城市空间与居民空间行为作用机制。在新型城镇化背景下,基于微观尺度聚焦居民个人空间行为的研究亟待开展,空间正义、社会公平、区域发展均衡等议题亟待关注,融合信息通讯技术的城市空间理论亟待发展。     

理解中国城市生活方式：基于时空行为的研究框架

面对以人为核心的城市研究与规划需求,如何理解城市居民的日常生活并分析城市空间与居民生活方式之间的互动关系就显得尤为重要。转型期背景下,受到制度与市场双重力量的驱动,中国城市生活方式表现出特殊性。本文从生活方式理论、时间地理学和活动分析法的理论基础出发,分析生活方式与时空行为的关系,指出从行为角度进行生活方式研究的可行性;提出基于时空行为变量测度生活方式的指标体系,将出行模式、与城市空间的关系和日程安排作为度量生活方式的核心指标;并构建了生活方式的影响机制分析框架,提出制度、技术、地理背景和社会关系是影响生活方式的主要因素,为更好的理解中国城市社会空间与居民生活提供有效途径。     

INTRODUCTION: PROCESSES OF CHANGE IN URBAN SYSTEMS*

ABSTRACT The twenty‐first century will be one of intensified urbanization, on a scale never before experienced. How do urban systems and individual cities change and develop? The social sciences have many different approaches to analyzing the economic, social, and spatial dimensions of urban change. We inventory some of these approaches and their implications for public policy toward cities, urban change, and economic development.     

基于社会学视野的黄山市汤口镇旅游城市化特征和机制研究

改革开放以来,旅游城市化成为汤口镇城市化发展的主要路径之一。基于社会学视野考察黄山市汤口镇旅游城市化发展特征并探讨其机制。发现伴随旅游业发展,汤口镇产业结构由第一产业为主向以旅游业占主导的第三产业为主的产业结构转变,居民收入主要来自于旅游业,居民就业主要向旅游业及其相关产业集中;居民的居住条件、生活习惯和邻里关系呈现城市社区特点,居民的经营理念、教育观念和生活态度等思想观念发生很大转变,显现出城市居民的特点;居民的社会角色向现代企业家转变;汤口镇城镇性质和职能也由农业社区向旅游社区演变。而优越的区位条件、良好的资源禀赋、政府的推动以及居民的积极参与等是汤口镇旅游城市化发展的主要因素。     

城市化对区域发展的经济绩效研究

在对全国和陕西省城市化基本情况分析的基础上,以全国31个城市和陕西省10个城市为研究对象,通过多元回归模型分析了城市化对不同区域经济发展以及对不同类型城市经济发展的影响。认为只有合理的城市化才能促进区域经济的发展,并试图提出适应不同经济发展水平的城市化道路及其发展对策。文章的主要结论包括:不同城市化因子对区域经济的贡献存在较大的区域差异,全国难以选择统一的城市化模式;不同城市化因子对不同等级规模城市的经济绩效存在明显的差异,反映了大中小城市在发展过程中应各有侧重。     

个体行为视角下中小城市居民就医空间及社会分异研究——兼议与特大城市比较

基于日常医疗消费出行调查数据,剖析了中小城市居民日常就医出行空间社会特征,并与特大城市比较,结果表明：中小城市居民日常就医选择以市域最高等级综合医院为中心,形成"一超多强"多中心结构,出行空间呈"三带四圈层"的核心-外围形态。低收入群体近距离就医特征突出,出行空间小;高收入群体消费选择较为多元,出行时空范围广。中小城市居民日常就医首选私人诊所,出行距离是首要考虑因素,出行空间与收入水平呈正相关;特大城市居民日常就医首选区级医院,更重视医疗机构社会声誉,与中小城市存在显著差异。     

The Economic Performance of European Cities and City Regions: Myths and Realities

The ever-increasing concentration of people and economic growth in the largest cities relative to the rest of the country has slowed down or even reversed in many of the developed European countries over the last decade. This trend contradicts what the global cities, urban economics and new economic geography literature would predict. This trend can be interpreted from two points of view: (1) the trend is due to large obstacles to further large city urbanization and thus is inefficient or (2) this trend highlights alternative pathways to growth than the mega-city approach and may be as, if not more, efficient. This trend may be linked to Europe's uniquely polycentric urban structure with high number of small- and medium-sized cities. In addition, improvements in the access to services, including broadband, outside large cities may have facilitated the higher growth rates of smaller centres and rural regions and increased their appeal for residents and firms. Last but not least, negative externalities in the large cities, such as congestion costs, pollution, labour crowding and high cost of living, may increase the appeal of smaller centres and rural regions.     

城市邻避空间及其演变轨迹——以南京市殡葬邻避空间为例

随着我国快速城镇化的进程和城市规模的扩大,多元化的能源设施、废弃物处理设施、社会类设施、特殊交通等邻避设施必将陆续进入城市规划区,并成为城市新的风险,基于公众对不同类型邻避设施风险接受度的差异而形成了不同特征的邻避空间。本文提出了邻避空间的概念,分析了其形成机制、扩散模式和类型,在此基础上以南京市殡葬邻避空间为例,分析其在“产生-挤压-消亡-再生”的空间生命周期中,邻避空间和城市空间之间经历的“侵入-竞争-协调-融合”的互动肌理,由此形成在城市中“边缘-近郊-市区-中心”的空间演变规律及再生手法,理论上丰富了邻避设施风险认知的范式和邻避空间的分析,实践中有利于提高邻避设施在城市中的顺利布局并应对邻避冲突。     

试论中国城市化快速发展道路

学术界对中国城市化道路的争论由来已久,中国传统的城市化道路导致了城市规模的无序扩张和城乡差距的日趋扩大。作者认为数量、质量并重和低成本转移劳动力,是城市化快速发展道路必须坚持的两大原则。发达国家的经验表明,集中型还是分散型的城市化道路,由资源条件和市场力量共同决定。最后,作者提出了大中小城市互相协调,东部、中部和西部地区差异化发展的城市化道路。     

Sale of children must be eliminated. Development and gender issues stressed

Meeting for 6 weeks, the 53-member UN Commission on Human Rights adopted more than 83 resolutions and 14 decisions, the majority by consensus. Among its measures, the commission called for the creation of an open-ended working group to develop policy guidelines for economic structural adjustment programs and their effects upon economic, social, and cultural rights; and the holding of a seminar of experts to develop guidelines on the subject of forced evictions. This report offers a round-up of action with regard to children's rights and abuse, gender issues, the right of people to development, country situations, hostages, indigenous and minority issues, and follow-up to the 1993 Vienna World Conference on Human Rights. Children are being sold for prostitution, pornography, and adoption at an increasing rate worldwide. The commission has therefore called upon governments to take legislative, social, and educational measures to ensure the protection of children from exploitation. Deeply concerned by the persistence of such violations, the commission recommended that states adopt measures to eliminate the existing market for such practices, and asked the group drafting a related optional protocol to the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child to continue its work. The UN High Commissioner for Human Rights will provide substantive support to the World Congress against the Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children, to be held in Stockholm in August.     

Social-Demographic Aspects of Urbanization in the USSR

A certain measure of agreement is found between rates of urbanization and industrialization, with the agreement far greater with total growth of urban population than with the concentration of urban population in big cities. This finding is thought to be significant support for those who contend that limitations on big-city growth are desirable and will not have an adverse effect on industrial development. Migration from the countryside continues to be the main source of urbanization, although its significance has greatly declined as natural increase of the urban population has risen. Migration in general is thought to be desirable because it helps redistribute the able-bodied population between the agricultural and industrial sectors of the economy and provides a channel for social mobility of rural youth. However, the magnitude and composition of rural-urban migration in some regions is having an adverse effect on the economy and requires more effective regulation.     

人口城镇化不是农村工业化、乡村城镇化

人口城镇化和农村工业化、乡村城镇化哪种提法更符合社会发展的趋势?它们之间的最大区别,是人口城镇化必然要求较大规模的人口乡→城异地迁移,农村工业化和乡村城镇化更强调人口的就地转化。人口城镇化是现代社会的发展趋势,而农村工业化和乡村城镇化只适用于部分条件较为优越的地区,大部分现有的农村是不可能工业化、也不可能城镇化的。所以,作为未来的发展方针,必须提人口城镇化,而不是农村工业化或乡村城镇化。并且,人口城镇化还肩负着转移农村剩余劳动力、提高农业经营规模和节约利用土地资源等多重使命,需要作出系统的政策安排。     

Conflict on the urban fringe: Urbanization,environmental stress,and urban unrest in Africa

Most research on the security implications of environmental and demographic change does not explicitly distinguish between urban and rural areas. While statistical conflict analyses are increasingly sophisticated with respect to spatial and substantive disaggregation they largely ignore the possibility that urban and rural areas may be affected differently. In Africa, a continent assumed to be particularly vulnerable to the social and economic externalities of environmental and demographic change, less than one percent of the land mass is defined as ‘urban’. Yet, the population that lives in African cities is expected to increase by more than 150% between 2020 and 2050 according to UN population forecasts, massively outpacing rural population growth estimated at 35%. Given the vast social transformation associated with this process of rapid urbanization, understanding the dynamics and consequences of urban population growth in Sub-Saharan Africa, and its possible relationship with environmental factors is key to reducing vulnerabilities and facilitating sustainable urban growth on the continent. In this article we argue that high urban population growth may strain the provision of public services in urban areas, heighten competition over scarce urban land, and increase the chances of urban social unrest. We expect population pressure to have the most profound effects on social unrest in peri-urban areas, meaning the urban outskirts. We further investigate whether environmental push factors, operationalized as droughts happening in rural areas proximate to the urban centers, could be driving any effect of urban population growth on social disorder, possibly supporting concerns over climate change-induced social unrest. We test our expectations on a sample of similarly sized urban and peri-urban ‘grid cells’ covering the whole of the African continent for the 1997–2010 period, using geo-coded social unrest data. Our analysis shows that urban population growth is associated with increased unrest in the peri-urban areas only. We find no evidence, however, that this relationship is driven by environmental push factors in the form of nearby droughts. The study contributes insights relevant to the broader debates about possible security implications of hyper-urbanization and climate change.     

快速工业化城市职住空间平衡与过剩通勤研究——以中山为例

过剩通勤是衡量城市居民职住空间组织和通勤效率的重要指标。本文以快速工业化城市中山市为例,采用2012年中山市交通调查数据,分析中山市职住空间平衡与过剩通勤状况。通过线性规划模型计算发现,中山市居民的通勤距离、过剩通勤率(E)、通勤容量(C_u)使用率均普遍小于国内大城市和西方城市。城市空间结构与土地利用、产业结构与就业结构对中山市的通勤特征的形成有重要的影响。过剩通勤各项指标与户籍、职业类型和家庭收入有显著的相关性。表现为家庭收入越高,过剩通勤率相对较高。机关事业单位和企业行政办公人员通勤效率较低,而产业工人通勤效率较高。非本市户籍人口通勤效率高于本市户籍人口。